British Expansion in India: The Marathas | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Rise of the Marathas

• As the Mughal Empire weakened, the Marathas, one of its strongest adversaries, began to rise in power.
• The Marathas controlled a large part of India and received tributes from regions not directly under their rule.
• By the mid-18th century, they were in Lahore, aspiring to become the rulers of North India and playing a significant role in the Mughal court.
• The Maratha state had the potential to become a new pan-Indian empire, but this potential was hindered by internal strife.
• After the death of Shivaji in 1680, the kingdom faced dynastic conflicts and continued pressure from the Mughals in the Deccan.
• Local revenue officers and landowners took advantage of the situation by aligning with either the Mughals or the Marathas.
• Shivaji's sons, Shambhaji and Rajaram, ruled briefly and fought against the Mughal army.
• After Rajaram's death in 1699, his queen Tarabai ruled in the name of her young son, Shivaji II.
• Aurangzeb died in 1707 after years of trying to conquer the Deccan, but the Marathas remained unconquered.
• However, the Maratha kingdom was weakened. The release of Shahu, Shivaji's grandson, from Mughal captivity in 1707 intensified internal conflict.
• Shahu and Tarabai became rival claimants to the throne, leading to a civil war in Maharashtra.

Balaji Vishwanath

• By 1712-13, the situation in Maharashtra was chaotic.
• However, with the help of new independent leaders, Brahman banking families, and Balaji Vishwanath, an able Chitpavan Brahman peshwa (prime minister), Shahu emerged victorious by 1718-19.
• In 1719, Balaji Vishwanath helped the Sayyid brothers install a puppet emperor in Delhi, securing a Mughal sanad (imperial order) for Shahu.
• This recognized Shahu's rights to chauth(tax) and sardeshmukhi(revenue) in several Mughal provinces, and granted him independent status in Maharashtra.
• The conflict with Tarabai was resolved in 1731 through the Treaty of Warna, which granted Kolapur to Shivaji II.
• Gradually, control of the state shifted to the Peshwas.
• Since Balaji Vishwanath's time, the office of the peshwa became powerful, centralizing authority and patronage in the Maratha kingdom.
• Balaji Vishwanath died in 1720 and was succeeded by his son Baji Rao.

Bajirao I (1720-40)

• Bajirao I, often referred to in the context of the movie "Bajirao Mastani", is considered the greatest of all the Peshwas.
• During his leadership until 1740, the Maratha state expanded significantly, gaining control over large territories of the Mughal Empire.
• Their main rival was the Nizam of Hyderabad, as both sought dominance over Karnataka, Khandesh, and Gujarat.
• After the Maratha victory at Palkhed in March 1728, the Nizam was compelled to recognize Shahu as the sole Maratha monarch.
• The Nizam granted Shahu rights to chauth and sardeshmukhi in the Deccan.
• Bajirao led military campaigns that extended Maratha influence into Malwa and Rajasthan by 1729.
• In Gujarat, Maratha bands collected taxes in the countryside while Mughal control waned.
• The governor of Gujarat eventually ceded 60% of the revenues to Shahu and the Peshwa through a treaty.
• He expanded into the coastal plain of Konkan, gaining control over territories held by the Sidis and driving the Portuguese out of Salsette, Bassein, and Chaul.
• In 1737, Bajirao attacked Delhi, temporarily capturing the Mughal emperor.
• The following year, he defeated a large Mughal army led by the Nizam, resulting in the Treaty of Bhopal in January 1739.
• This treaty granted the Peshwa control over the subah of Malwa and sovereignty over lands between the Narmada and Chambal rivers.
• In these new territories, the Marathas negotiated with local zamindars for yearly tributes without disrupting the existing power structures.
• A civilian system of revenue administration took time to develop in these newly conquered regions, a common feature of Maratha conquests.
• Bajirao initiated a confederacy of prominent Maratha chiefs to manage the expanding Maratha power and appease the kshatriya section of the Marathas.
• Each prominent family under a chief was assigned a sphere of influence to conquer and rule in the name of the Maratha king, Shahu.
• Prominent Maratha families included the Gaekwad of Baroda, the Bhonsle of Nagpur, the Holkars of Indore, the Sindhias of Gwalior, and the Peshwa of Poona.
• Under Bajirao I to Madhavrao I, the confederacy functioned well together.
• However, the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 changed this dynamic.
• The defeat at Panipat and the subsequent death of Peshwa Madhavrao I in 1772 weakened Peshwa control over the confederacy.
• Although the confederacy chiefs united against the British during 1775-82, they often quarreled among themselves.

Balaji Bajirao (Nana Saheb): 1740-1761

• After Baji Rao's death in 1740, Shahu appointed his son Balaji Bajirao, known as Nana Saheb, as Peshwa. Although more skilled in administration than military campaigns, he proved to be the most effective Peshwa.
• Following Shahu's death in 1749, Nana Saheb became the supreme authority in the Maratha polity. This era marked the peak of Maratha power, with their influence felt across India.
• In the east, from 1745 onwards,Raghuji Bhonsle of Nagpur led Maratha raids into Orissa, Bengal, and Bihar. A treaty in 1751 curtailed these raids, with Alivardi Khan agreeing to pay Rs. 120,000 annually for these provinces.
• In the Deccan, Maratha forces frequently raided the Nizam’s territories in the Konkan region, extracting tributes, but never fully conquering them.
• In northern India, the treaty of Bhalke in 1751 resulted in the new Nizam,Salabut Jung, ceding control of Khandesh to the Marathas. They also raided Rajput kingdoms such as Jaipur, Bundi, Kotah, Udaipur, and the Gond kingdom of Deogarh, imposing tributes without establishing permanent control.
• In 1752, the Marathas brought the Mughal emperor under their protection amidst an Afghan invasion. They briefly exerted influence in Punjab, but a Sikh rebellion soon ended their authority there.
• During Nana Saheb's tenure, the Third Battle of Panipat occurred. His nephew,Sadasiv Rao Bhao, led the Maratha forces but was defeated.
• Despite gaining control over large parts of North India, the Marathas did not establish a formal empire. They only attempted to set up administration in Khandesh, Malwa, and Gujarat, while other regions were mainly subjected to plunder and collection of chauth and sardeshmukhi.
• The Maratha dominance was challenged by an Afghan invasion led by Ahmad Shah Abdali. The Third Battle of Panipat on January 14, 1761, saw the Marathas, under Sadasiv Rao Bhao, suffer a devastating defeat with around fifty thousand casualties.
• This defeat marked the decline of Maratha power. Nana Saheb died shortly after, and the young Peshwa Madhav Rao faced internal struggles as factionalism emerged among the Maratha leaders.
• After Madhav Rao's death in 1772, his uncle,Raghunath Rao, took power but faced opposition from other Maratha chiefs. To strengthen his position, he allied with the English.

Maratha State as an Alternative to the Mughal Empire

The Maratha state could not effectively replace the Mughal Empire due to its own structural challenges.

• The Maratha state operated as a confederacy, with power shared among military leaders like the Bhonsles, Gaikwad, Holkar, and Sindhia. These leaders had gained their positions through military prowess during the time of Shahu.
• Parts of the Maratha territory were alienated to these military commanders, making it difficult for any central authority, particularly the peshwa, to control them. This led to increasing factional rivalry among the Maratha sardars.
• Despite a strong central authority, the composition of the inner circle of power varied from generation to generation.
• At the local level, there were heritable vatan rights held by village headmen, mirasidars, and deshmukhs, which kings could not revoke. Regional assemblies of vatandars held political power and resolved disputes, reflecting local loyalties rather than a centralized kingship.
• To establish control, the Maratha state attempted to replace the horizontal brotherhood of vatandars with a vertical relationship of service by distributing temporary land rights or saranjam, similar to Mughal jagir. However, the traditional system persisted.
• Locally powerful Brahman or Maratha individuals ended up with a mix of different rights, and both local loyalties and centralized kingship continued to coexist.

Relationship between the Maratha State and the Mughal System

• Some historians view the Maratha state as a rebel entity. For example, Irfan Habib (1963) argues that it emerged from a zamindar revolt against an oppressive Mughal bureaucracy.
• Satish Chandra (1993) sees the Maratha state as regionally focused, with Baji Rao's main goal being supremacy in the Deccan rather than a broader Indian dominance.
• In this view, the Maratha state represents a departure from Mughal tradition.
• However, historians like Andre Wink argue that the Marathas were very much within the Mughal tradition. They built their power on the notion of sedition (fitva), a concept that the Mughal state allowed space for.
• Even in the 1770s, the Marathas acknowledged the symbolic authority of the Mughal emperor. In areas like Malwa, Khandesh, and parts of Gujarat, where they established administration, it resembled the Mughal system.
• Old terminologies were retained, and urban tax rates continued to favor Muslims. The main difference was that in Maratha territories, many civilian revenue collectors, mainly Brahmans, did not transition into military command, unlike the Mughal system, which had a unified civilian and military bureaucracy.
• Despite these differences, the Mughal tradition remained central to the social and political lifeof the Maratha state system, even as it had to contend with local loyalties.

  Decline of the Maratha State

  • The decline of the Maratha state was not primarily due to internal factionalism, but rather the growing power of the English in the Deccan.
  • The Marathas found it increasingly difficult to resist the efficient English army.
  • The Three Anglo-Maratha Wars
  • The period from the late 18th century to the early 19th century saw the Marathas and the English clashing in three significant conflicts for political supremacy, with the English ultimately emerging victorious.
  • Causes of these conflicts:
  
  
  • The English had overwhelming ambition.
  • The rapid growth of the Company’s cotton trade with China through Bombay from Gujarat raised their concerns about the security of the Deccan, which was under the control of the Maratha confederacy.
  • The internal divisions within the Maratha leadership made it easier for the English to pursue their objectives.
  • The English in Bombay aimed to establish a government similar to the one set up by Clive in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The disunity among the Marathas over succession provided a favorable opportunity for the English to expand their influence.

First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

Background:

• After the death of Madhavrao in 1772, his brother Narayanrao became the fifth peshwa. However, Narayanrao’s uncle,Raghunathrao, had his nephew assassinated and declared himself peshwa, despite not being the legal heir.
• Narayanrao’s widow,Gangabai, gave birth to a son, 'Sawai' Madhavrao, who was the legal heir. Twelve Maratha chiefs, led by Nana Phadnavis, attempted to make the infant the new peshwa and rule as regents.
• The succession dispute led to intervention, with Raghunath Rao seeking support from the British in Bombay.
• Treaties of Surat and Purandhar:
• Raghunathrao, wanting to maintain power, sought help from the British and signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775.
• Under this treaty, Raghunathrao ceded territories of Salsette and Bassein to the British in exchange for military support.
• The British Calcutta Council rejected the Treaty of Surat and sent Colonel Upton to Pune to annul it, leading to the Treaty of Purandhar in 1776.
• The Treaty of Purandhar was inconclusive and not ratified by Bengal authorities.
• In 1777, Nana Phadnavis violated the treaty with the Calcutta Council by granting the French a port, prompting British retaliation.
• The British faced a significant defeat at Wadgaon in 1779, during which the Marathas employed scorched earth tactics.
• The Treaty of Wadgaon forced the Bombay government to relinquish territories acquired since 1775.
• Nana Fadnis rose to prominence during this period and formed an alliance with the Bhonsle family, the Nizam, and Haidar Ali against the British.

The Treaty of Salbai(1782):

• Warren Hastings, the Governor-General in Bengal, rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon and sent forces to capture territories from the Marathas.
• Sindhia proposed a new treaty between the Peshwa and the British, leading to the Treaty of Salbai in 1782.
• The treaty, ratified by Hastings and Phadnavis, ensured peace between the Marathas and the British for twenty years.

Main provisions of the Treaty of Salbai:

• Salsette remained with the British.
• Territories conquered since the Treaty of Purandhar were restored to the Marathas.
• The British would not support Raghunathrao, and the Peshwa was to grant him a maintenance allowance.
• Haidar Ali was to return all territories taken from the British and the Nawab of Arcot.
• The British retained trade privileges.
• The Peshwa was not to support other European nations.
• The Peshwa and the British ensured peace among their allies.
• Mahadji Sindhia was the guarantor for the treaty's observance.
• The treaty committed the Marathas to friendship with the British and a confrontation with Mysore.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805)

Background: 

• The Second Anglo-Maratha War began under circumstances similar to the first conflict.
• The Maratha state was in a dire state due to intense internal rivalries among the sardars (chiefs). Nana Fadnis had rendered the peshwa virtually powerless.
• In 1795, the frustrated peshwa Madhavrao Narayan committed suicide, leading to a succession dispute that plunged the Maratha polity into chaos.
• After Madhavrao's death, Bajirao II, the ineffective son of Raghunathrao, became the Peshwa. Nana Phadnavis, a rival of Bajirao II, assumed the role of chief minister.
• The internal dissensions among the Marathas provided the British an opportunity to intervene. The death of Nana Phadnavis in 1800 further weakened the Maratha position.
• With the arrival of Lord Wellesley, British attitudes toward Indian states shifted significantly. Hyderabad had already accepted a 'Subsidiary Alliance,' and Mysore was defeated in 1799.
• This left the Company in direct confrontation with the Marathas, the last major indigenous power in the subcontinent.
• Course of War: On April 1, 1801, the Peshwa brutally murdered Vithuji, the brother of Jaswantrao Holkar. Enraged, Jaswant rallied his forces against the combined armies of Sindhia and Bajirao II. The conflict escalated, and on October 25, 1802, Jaswant decisively defeated the Peshwa and Sindhia at Hadaspar near Poona, installing Vinayakrao, son of Amritrao, as Peshwa.
• A frightened Bajirao II fled to Bassein, where he signed a treaty with the English on December 31, 1802.

Treaty of Bassein (1802):

• The treaty was a form of Subsidiary Alliance.
• Under its terms, the Peshwaagreed to:
  • Receive a native infantry (not less than 6,000 troops) from the Company, permanently stationed in his territories.
  • Cede territories yielding an income of Rs 26 lakh to the Company.
  • Surrender the city of Surat.
  • Renounce all claims for chauth on the Nizam’s dominions.
  • Accept Company arbitration in disputes with the Nizam or the Gaekwad.
  • Not employ Europeans from nations at war with the English.
  • Subject his relations with other states to English control.
• After the treaty, Bajirao was escorted to Poona and installed in office.
• However, this did not signify the immediate end of independent Maratha power.
• It marked the beginning of the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805).
• Holkar soon contested the peshwaship and sought allies.
• Battles continued across Maratha territories for the next two years.
• Reduced to Vassalage: Following the Peshwa's acceptance of the subsidiary alliance, Sindhia and Bhonsle endeavored to preserve Maratha independence. However, the well-organized army of the English under Arthur Wellesley defeated their combined forces, forcing them into separate subsidiary treaties with the English.
• In 1804, Yashwantrao Holkar attempted to unite Indian rulers against the English, but his efforts were unsuccessful. The Marathas were ultimately defeated, reduced to British vassalage, and isolated from one another.
• Defeat of Bhonsle (December 17, 1803, Treaty of Devgaon);Defeat of Sindhia (December 30, 1803, Treaty of Surajianjangaon);Defeat of Holkar (1806, Treaty of Rajpurghat).
• Treaties of subordination were imposed on several tributaries of the Marathas, such as the Rajput states, the jars, the Rohillas, and the Bundellas in northern Malwa.
• The treaties prohibited other Europeans from serving in any Maratha army and made the British arbiters in disputes between Maratha houses.
• This did not signify the final demise of Maratha Power.
• The wars incurred significant expenses for the Company, leading to the recall of Lord Wellesley in 1805 by the Court of Directors.
• Lord Cornwallis was reappointed as the governor-general in India with instructions to follow a policy of non-intervention.
• This allowed Maratha sardars like Holkar and Sindhia to regain some power.
• The irregular soldiers of the Marathas, known as the Pindaris, plundered the countryside in Malwa and Rajasthan.
• Significance of the Treaty of Bassein: Although signed by a politically weak Peshwa, the treaty brought immense gains for the English.
• The provision for permanent English troops in Maratha territory was strategically beneficial.
• The Company already had troops in Mysore, Hyderabad, and Lucknow.
• Adding Poona to this list allowed for a more even distribution of troops, enabling quicker responses in times of need.
• While the Treaty of Bassein did not hand over India to the Company outright, it significantly advanced their position, setting the stage for further expansion of influence.
• The observation that the treaty "gave the English the key to India" may be an exaggeration, but it reflects the treaty's importance in the broader context.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19)

Background:

• The situation persisted until Lord Hastings became the Governor-General in 1813.
• Lord Hastings aimed to impose British paramountcy.
• The Charter Act of 1813 ended the East India Company’s trade monopoly in China (except for tea), necessitating the Company to seek new markets.
• Hastings introduced the policy of “paramountcy,” prioritizing the Company’s interests over other Indian powers.
• This policy justified the annexation or threat of annexation of Indian states’ territories to protect Company interests.
• The Pindaris, comprising various castes and classes, served as mercenaries in Maratha armies.
• With the Marathas weakened, the Pindaris resorted to plundering neighboring territories, including those of the Company.
• The British accused the Marathas of harboring the Pindaris.
• Pindari leaders like Amir Khan and Karim Khan surrendered, while Chitu Khan escaped into the jungles.
• The Treaty of Bassein, seen as “a treaty with a cipher (the Peshwa),” offended other Maratha leaders, who viewed it as a complete surrender of independence.
• Lord Hastings’ actions against the Pindaris were perceived as an infringement on Maratha sovereignty, inadvertently uniting the Maratha confederacy once more.
• A remorseful Bajirao II attempted to unite the Maratha chiefs against the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War, which commenced with an attack on the British Residency at Poona by the Peshwa.

Result:

• In June 1818, the Peshwa surrendered, leading to the dissolution of the Maratha confederacy.
• The peshwaship was abolished, and the British gained complete control over the Peshwa’s dominion.
• Peshwa Bajirao became a British retainer at Bithur near Kanpur.
• The Maratha army and the Pindaris were decisively defeated.
• Several important treatieswere signed, including:
  • Treaty of Poona with the Peshwa.
  • Treaty of Gwalior with Sindhia.
  • Treaty of Mandasor with Holkar.
• Pratap Singh, a direct descendant of Shivaji, was made the ruler of a small principality, Satara, carved out of the Peshwa’s dominions.
• The English East India Company achieved complete mastery over all territories south of the Vindhyas.

Why the Marathas Lost

• Inept Leadership: The later Maratha leaders, such as Bajirao II, Daulatrao Sindhia, and Jaswantrao Holkar, were ineffective and selfish, lacking the capability of English officials like Elphinstone, John Malcolm, and Arthur Wellesley.
• Defective Nature of Maratha State: The cohesion of the Maratha state was weak and artificial, lacking efforts for communal improvement, education, or unification from the time of Shivaji. The state was founded on a religio-national movement, making it vulnerable against a well-organized European power.
• Loose Political Set-up: The Maratha empire was a loose confederation with powerful chiefs like the Gaikwad, Holkar, Sindhia, and Bhonsle establishing semi-independent kingdoms. Hostility among the chiefs and lack of cooperation weakened the confederacy.
• Inferior Military System: The Marathas were outmatched by the English in military organization, weaponry, discipline, and leadership. Internal treachery and inadequate adoption of modern warfare techniques, especially in artillery, contributed to their failures.
• Unstable Economic Policy: The Maratha leadership failed to establish a stable economic policy, lacking industries and foreign trade. This economic instability hindered a solid political foundation.
• Superior English Diplomacy and Espionage: The English excelled in diplomacy, winning allies and isolating enemies. Their espionage system provided crucial information about the Marathas, contrasting with the Marathas' lack of intelligence about their foes.
• Progressive English Outlook: The English were driven by Renaissance ideals, focusing on scientific advancements and colonial expansion. In contrast, the Marathas were mired in medieval thinking, with leaders neglecting essential state matters and maintaining traditional social hierarchies.

Conclusion

• The English attacked a divided and weakened Maratha confederacy, which was crumbling under internal pressures.