Spread of Buddhism | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Buddhism and Gautama Buddha

The Life of Gautama Buddha

• Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was a contemporary of Mahavira. Born as Siddhartha in 563 B.C. in Lumbini (now in Nepal), he belonged to the Gautama gotra and the Shakya Kshatriya clan of Kapilavastu.
• His birthplace is marked by the Rumnindei Pillar of Ashoka Maurya. His father, Suddhodana, was likely the elected ruler of Kapilvastu, leading the republican Shakya clan. His mother, Maya, a Koliya princess, died shortly after childbirth. Siddhartha was raised by his aunt, Prajapati Gautami.
• At sixteen, Siddhartha married, traditionally known as Bhadda Kachchana, Yasodhara, or Subhadraka. Even as a child, he exhibited a contemplative nature. The experiences of encountering an old man, a sick person, a corpse, and an ascetic (the Four Great Signs) deepened his aversion to worldly pleasures. After the birth of his son, Rahula, he left home at twenty-nine in search of Truth, an event known as ‘The Great Renunciation’ (mahabhinshkramana).

Seeking Enlightenment

• For six years, Gautama Buddha lived as a wandering ascetic, seeking guidance from various teachers, including Alara Kalama(at Vaishali) and Uddaka or Ramaputta(at Rajagriha).
• From Alara Kalama, he learned meditation techniques and Upanishadic teachings, but these did not lead him to liberation.
• Gautama practiced extreme austerities and self-torture in his quest for truth, only to find them unhelpful.

The Path to Enlightenment

• Abandoning these practices, he traveled to Uruvela(near Bodh Gaya) and sat under a pipal tree(Bodhi tree) after bathing in the Niranjana River.
• At 35, on the 49th day of continuous meditation, he attained supreme knowledge (Enlightenment) and became known as the Buddha (the Enlightened One).
• He was also called Tathagata(one who has attained the truth) and Sakya-Muni(sage of the Sakya clan).

First Sermon and Establishment of the Sangha

• The Buddha then went to the Deer Park at Sarnath near Varanasi and delivered his first sermon, known as ‘Dharmachakra Pravartana’ (setting in motion the wheel of Dharma).
• His first five disciples, including Asvajit, Upali, Mogallana, Sariputra, and Ananda, realized the truth and became arhats.
• The Buddha established the Buddhist Sangha and preached most of his sermons at Sravasti.
• Anathapindika, a wealthy merchant of Sravasti, became a follower and made significant donations to the Buddhist order.

Missions and Teachings

• The Buddha traveled extensively to spread his teachings, visiting places like Sarnath,Mathura,Rajgir,Gaya, and Pataliputra.
• Kings such as Bimbisara(Magadha),Ajatasatru(Magadha),Prasenajita(Kosala), and Udayana(Kausambi) became his disciples.
• He visited Kapilavastu, converting his foster mother and son Rahula to Buddhism.

Legacy and Death

• Throughout his missionary activities, the Buddha engaged in debates with followers of rival sects, including Brahmanas, and did not discriminate in his teachings between rich and poor, high and low, or men and women.
• Gautama Buddha passed away at the age of 80 in Kusinagar(modern-day Kasia in Deoria district, Uttar Pradesh) in 483 B.C., an event known as Mahaparinirvana.

Sources of Buddha's Hagiography

• Some elements of Buddha's hagiography are found in the Sutta and Vinaya Pitakas, but detailed accounts are given in texts like Lalitavistara,Mahavastu,Buddhacharita, and Nidanakatha, which belong to the early centuries CE.
• Extracting a historical life story from these hagiographies is challenging because they present Buddha's life in a narrative aimed at conveying significant meanings to followers.

Doctrines of Buddhism

Buddha emerged as a pragmatic reformer, attuned to the realities of his time. He steered clear of futile debates about the soul (atman) and Brahman, which were prevalent during his era, and instead focused on addressing worldly issues. He observed that the world is rife with suffering, primarily due to desires. By conquering these desires, one can attain nirvana, thereby freeing oneself from the cycle of birth and death.
The core teachings of Buddha are encapsulated in the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.

Four Noble Truths

• Dukkha: The world (samsara) is filled with suffering.
• Samudaya (origin, arising): The cause of suffering is desire (trishna). This concept is further explained through 'Pattichcha Samuppada' (dependent origination), which outlines a causal chain of twelve interdependent events starting with ignorance and leading to desire and ultimately to suffering.
• Nirodha (cessation, ending): Suffering can be ended by renouncing or letting go of desires.
• Magga: The path leading to the cessation of suffering is the Noble Eightfold Path.

Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path consists of the following principles:

• Right view: Understanding reality as it is, recognizing that the world is filled with sorrow generated by desire, and that ending desire leads to liberation.
• Right thought/aim/intention: Aiming to renounce sensory pleasures and luxury, and to promote the happiness of others.
• Right speech: Speaking truthfully and non-harmfully.
• Right action: Acting in a non-harmful and unselfish manner.
• Right livelihood: Living by honest means and pursuing a non-harmful livelihood.
• Right effort/conduct: Controlling one's senses to prevent bad thoughts and making efforts to improve oneself.
• Right mindfulness: Understanding the impermanence of the body and using meditation to remove worldly evils.
• Right concentration/meditation: Observing meditation to achieve peace and unravel the truth.

According to Buddha's teachings, anyone who follows this 'middle path' would attain salvation, regardless of their social position.

Middle Path

• The Middle Path advocates for non-extremism, avoiding the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.

Sabbam Dukkham

• Dukkha and its extinction are central to Buddha's doctrine. He taught that everything is suffering (sabbam dukkham). This teaching can be interpreted as either extremely pessimistic or extremely realistic. Suffering encompasses not only the actual pain and sorrow experienced by an individual but also the potential to experience these emotions. 
• States of happiness or pleasure are unstable and temporary, dependent on the gratification of the senses through specific objects or experiences. The reasons for suffering include human tendencies such as desire, attachment, greed, pride, aversion, and ignorance, with desire (trishna) being central to the cause and removal of suffering. 
• This concept is closely linked to another aspect emphasized in Buddha's teachings—impermanence (anichcha).

Impermanence

• Impermanence has several facets. In relation to an individual's life, no being or power in the universe can prevent old age, sickness, and death. At a fundamental level, what we perceive as the 'I' or 'me' is actually a constantly changing compound of a succession of experiences and consciousness instants. 
• The simile of the river illustrates this—while the river seems the same, the drops of water constituting it change every instant. The notion of a permanent, unchanging 'I' or 'me' is a result of misperception and ignorance. The emphasis on impermanence involves rejecting any unchanging, permanent, eternal substances or essences like the atman.

Law of Karma

• Buddhism places significant emphasis on the law of 'karma.' In the Buddhist universe, there are numerous worlds and various kinds of beings, and one can be born as any of them. The connection between different lives is established through karma. In the Brahmanical tradition, karma refers to ritual action. 
• However, in Buddha's teaching, karma pertains to intentions leading to actions of body, speech, or mind. Rebirth is governed by the cumulative results of karma from a particular life, making the doctrine of karma a fundamental aspect of Buddha's teachings.

Nibbana (Nirvana)

• The ultimate goal of Buddha's teachings is the attainment of nibbana, which is not a physical place but an experiential state that can be achieved in this life. Nibbana signifies the extinguishing of all desires and the cessation of sufferings, leading to freedom from rebirth. By eliminating desires, one can attain nibbana. Buddha emphasized that the real problem lies in the annihilation of desire, rather than in prayers and sacrifices. Unlike the Vedic tradition, which focused on rituals and ceremonies, Buddha stressed the importance of an individual's moral life.
• Nibbana is often described as blowing out, dying out, or extinction—the extinguishing of desire, attachment, greed, hatred, ignorance, the sense of 'I-ness,' and breaking free from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. It is important to note that nibbana does not equate to physical death. The term parinibbana (complete or final dying out) is used to refer to the death of an enlightened being, such as the Buddha.
• Buddha's teachings acknowledge the concept of transmigration (samsara) but reject the notion of the atman. Instead of the atman, what transmigrates is interpreted as the transmigration of character or personality. Another interpretation is the transmission of a life impulse, akin to the transmission of a flame from one candle to another. The teachings suggest that the elements of conscious existence do not vanish into thin air upon death but reappear in a different combination and form at another time and place.
• The Milindapanha (1st century CE) provides an analogy to explain this concept: just as milk transforms into curds, butter, and ghee, a being transmigrates, neither as the same nor as another.
• Buddha can be regarded as an agnostic as he neither affirmed nor denied the existence of God. He asserted that all things are composite, and consequently, all things are transient because the composition of all aggregates is subject to change. His primary concern was with the individual and their actions. Buddhism also denied the existence of the soul and the concept of God, marking a significant shift in the history of Indian religions. While Buddha accepted 'karma' and 'transmigration,' he denied the permanence of the soul. Early Buddhism, not entangled in philosophical debates, resonated with the common people.
• Buddha emphasized the spirit of love, advocating for the expression of love towards all living beings through 'ahimsa' (non-killing). Although this principle was well understood, it was not emphasized as strongly as in Jainism. Buddhism does not recognize the authority of the Vedas, and for this reason, Buddhist philosophy is categorized as atheistic.
• Buddhism opposed the varna system and caste distinctions, garnering support from the lower strata of society by challenging the varna system. Individuals were admitted into the Buddhist order without regard for caste.

According to Buddha, a person is composed of five groups (Skandha) of physical and mental factors:

• Rupa(form),
• Samjna(Name),
• Vedana(sensations),
• Vijnana(consciousness), and
• Samskara(Disposition).

Patichcha-samuppada (the law of dependent origination)

This law serves as both an explanation for all phenomena and an explanation for dukkha. The elements of this law are presented as a wheel comprising 12 nidanas, with each nidana leading to the next:

• ignorance (avijja),
• formations (sankhara),
• consciousness (vinnana),
• mind and body (nama-rupa),
• the six senses (salayatana),
• sense contact (phassa),
• feeling (vedana),
• craving (tanha/trishna),
• attachment (upadana),
• becoming (bhava),
• birth (jati), and
• old age and death (jaramarana).

The nidanas were later categorized into three groups corresponding to past, present, and future lives. Consequently, patichcha-samuppada also elucidated how the origins of rebirth are rooted in ignorance.

Ahimsa

• The Buddhist emphasis on ahimsa involved criticism of Brahmanical animal sacrifices. Monks and nuns were prohibited from killing animals and were advised against drinking water that contained small creatures. However, the focus on ahimsa did not necessarily imply vegetarianism, and monks were not restricted from consuming meat. This is because the emphasis was on the intention behind the act. Monks were required to accept whatever was offered to them during their begging rounds, which meant that meat had to be accepted if offered, as long as the animal was not killed specifically to feed them.
• There were certain exceptions, however—specific types of flesh were never to be accepted, including that of humans, elephants, snakes, dogs, and horses.

Ethical Code of Conduct

Buddha established an ethical code of conduct for both members of the monastic order and the laity. Monks and nuns were expected to strictly adhere to the following guidelines:

• Destruction of life
• Taking what is not given (theft)
• Sexual activity
• Lying
• The use of intoxicants that cause heedlessness
• Eating after mid-day
• Attending entertainments
• Using perfumes and jewellery
• Using luxurious beds
• Handling gold and silver (including money)

The first five rules were also applicable to the laity, with the exception that celibacy was replaced by chastity. Chastity was considered important and was defined not only in terms of sexual activity but also in relation to sexual desire and thoughts.

Three Jewels in Buddhism

The Three Jewels in Buddhism are:

• The Buddha: The fully enlightened one.
• The Dhamma: The teachings expounded by the Buddha.
• The Sangha: The monastic order of Buddhism that practices the Dhamma.

These three jewels are inseparable because the Dhamma could not have been taught without the Buddha, and it could not have been followed without the Sangha.

Buddha's Focus on Harmonious Social Relations

Buddha emphasized harmonious social relations and defined duties within society. Some examples of these duties include:

• Duties to Friends: Be generous, treat as equals, stand by your friend, take care, and help in trouble.
• Employers' Duties Towards Servants: Treat decently, avoid overburdening, care in times of need, and provide adequate food and wages.
• Duties of Servants to Masters: Work thoroughly, be content with just wages, and maintain the master's reputation.
• Husband's Duty Towards Wife: Pay respect, comply with requests as much as possible, and provide according to capacity.
• Wife's Duty Towards Husband: Perform duties honestly, be gentle and kind, work with skill and enthusiasm, and maintain the household properly.

The Buddhist Sangha or Church

The Buddha had two types of disciples: monks (bhikshus or shramanas) and lay worshippers (upasakas). The monks were organized into the Sangha, or congregation.

Membership Criteria

• Membership in the Sangha was open to all individuals, regardless of gender, who were at least fifteen years old and free from infectious diseases like leprosy and consumption.
• People in the service of the king, those in debt, slaves, and individuals branded as criminals or robbers were not allowed to join.
• There were no caste restrictions, and women were also admitted to the Sangha.

Admission Requirements

• The only requirement for monks was to faithfully observe the rules and regulations of the Sangha.
• Once enrolled, they had to take vows of continence, poverty, and faith.
• The Sangha did not accept the varna (caste) distinction.

Monasteries and Academic Centers

• Monasteries were built to accommodate monks and nuns for their studies and meditation, evolving into academic centers over time.
• Every Buddhist monk had to be a Sramana before being fully ordained as a member of the Sangha. This higher ordination, known as upasampada, marked their full membership.

Process of Joining the Sangha

• When a new person wanted to join the Sangha, they had to shave their head, don a yellow robe, and take oaths of fidelity to the triratna: the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha.

Governance and Discipline

• The Sangha was governed democratically and had the authority to enforce discipline among its members.
• Monks in a monastery were required to hold a fortnightly assembly to elect their president (Sanghaparinayaka) and choose two speakers, one on dhamma (doctrine) and the other on Vinaya (discipline).
• In assembly meetings, resolutions were formally moved (Jnapati), and voting was done using wooden sticks (salaka).
• No assembly was valid without the presence of at least ten monks, and novices and women were not entitled to vote or constitute the quorum.

Social Implications of Buddha’s Teachings

• The Buddha’s teachings were more socially inclusive than the Brahmanical tradition but did not aim to abolish social differences.
• Buddhist texts reveal their own biases, even in the ostensibly a-social world of the Sangha.
• The Buddha viewed all social relationships as fetters and sources of suffering, advocating for liberation through breaking these bonds.
• The monastic order had the potential to create social upheaval by providing refuge for social dropouts. However, the Buddhist tradition sought to maintain the status quo with specific conditions for entry:
• Soldiers needed the king's permission to join.
• Slaves could only join after being freed by their masters.
• Debtors had to settle their debts before admission.
• Unlike the Brahmanical tradition, the Buddhist view considered varna a human-made classification.
• In the Samyutta Nikaya, the Buddha emphasized behavior over origin (jati), stating that a saint's worth is determined by actions, not birth.
• People do not become Brahmanas by birth but by their deeds. Birth in a high or low family is seen as a result of past actions, but everyone has the potential to achieve nibbana (enlightenment).
• Bhikkhus were expected to accept food from all, regardless of class or caste, indicating a disregard for contemporary social norms.
• The Buddha himself had no restrictions on accepting food, enjoying hospitality from both wealthy gahapatis and those of lower social status. His last meal, according to tradition, was at the home of a blacksmith named Chunda.
• The Pali texts reflected notions of high and low status in occupations. High sippas (occupations) included money changing, accounting, and writing, while farming, cattle rearing, and trade were also considered high. Low sippas included leather making, reed working, potting, tailoring, painting, weaving, and barbering.
• The Buddhist laity was discouraged from engaging in trades involving weapons, meat, intoxicants, or poisons.

Varna in the Buddhist Sangha

• In the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha described a dream where four birds of different varnas (kinds, colors) came from all directions and sat at his feet, symbolizing the acceptance of monks from all varnas—Khattiya, Brahmana, Vessa, and Sudda—into his fold.
• When a person joined the Sangha, they were considered without varna (vevanniyanti), as varna and jati were deemed irrelevant for aspirants to the Sangha.
• The distinguished monk Upali was originally a barber of the Sakyas, but a closer examination of the Sangha’s composition reveals a significant proportion of upper-class members.
• A large number of monks were Brahmanas or Kshatriyas, or belonged to families of high status (uchcha kulas). Notable Brahmana monks included Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, and Mahakassapa, while prominent Kshatriya monks included the Buddha, Ananda, and Aniruddha.

Kshatriya Superiority Over Brahmana

• The Pali canon reverses the Brahmanical order of rank, placing the Kshatriya above the Brahmana.
• The Buddhist view on varna and birth is evident in various texts, particularly in the Ambattha Sutta in the Digha Nikaya, where the Kshatriya is regarded as superior to the Brahmana in social status, but the one who has attained nibbana is considered superior to all.
• While the Buddha often rejected the Brahmanical claim to innate superiority, the term ‘Brahmana’ in Buddhist texts has two meanings:
• As a social category, referring to those of the Brahmana class.
• As an ideal category, denoting a wise person who led a virtuous life.
• In some instances, the Buddha himself is referred to as ‘Brahmana’.
• The Sonadanda Sutta emphasizes that Brahmanahood is not determined by birth; a true Brahmana is one who possesses true knowledge, not merely one who recites Vedic verses.

Reasons for Brahmana Participation in the Sangha

• The large-scale participation of Brahmanas as monks and lay-followers of the Buddha can be explained by the resonance of his teachings with ongoing debates within the Brahmana intelligentsia.
• Not all Brahmanas were ritual specialists, and those who were not would not have been offended by the critiques of sacrificial practices.
• However, the participation of Brahmanas in the Sangha was likely viewed with disapproval by other Brahmanas, particularly those who adhered strictly to Brahmanical norms.

Buddhism and Women

• Early Buddhism had two significant aspects:the belief that women could achieve the highest goal of nibbana, and the establishment of a bhikkhuni sangha. However, Buddhist texts also portray women through stereotypical lenses, presenting ideals of submissive and obedient women whose lives revolved around their husbands and sons.
• Additionally, these texts often depict women negatively as temptresses and beings driven by passion, comparing them to harmful black snakes and fire, reflecting a tradition that valued celibacy and viewed women as potential threats.
• Just as monks were cautioned against women, nuns were advised to be wary of men. Buddhist tradition indicates that the Buddha was initially reluctant to set up a bhikkhuni sangha but eventually succumbed to the persistent requests of his disciple Ananda and his foster-mother, Mahapajapati Gotami.
• The Vinaya Pitaka describes the Buddha predicting that the doctrine would decline in 500 years instead of 1,000 due to the inclusion of women in the sangha.
• The sangha was not open to pregnant women,mothers of unweaned children,rebellious women associating with young men, and those lacking their parents’ or husbands’ permission to join.
• The rules for nuns were similar to those for monks, but there were additional regulations placing the order of nuns subordinate to that of monks. While women could achieve salvation, the idea of them attaining Buddhahood directly without first being born as men was not accepted.
• Buddhist texts such as the Samyutta Nikaya and Anguttara Nikaya reference learned nuns.

Interaction between Monks and Nuns

• Monks and nuns likely had some level of interaction. Nuns were not allowed to live too far from monks during regular times or the monsoon retreat. They had to consult monks regarding the date of the uposatha ceremony. If a nun violated certain rules, she had to answer to a mixed group of monks and nuns.
• However, their contact was carefully regulated. For instance, a monk was prohibited from being alone with a nun in a closed room and was not allowed to preach to a woman privately without a third person present. However, a monk could accompany a nun on a road deemed dangerous.
• When evaluating a tradition’s progressiveness, it is essential to consider the standards of its time. By the standards of the 6th/5th century BCE, the Buddha created a significant opportunity for women’s spiritual aspirations. In comparison to texts from other religious traditions, women are notably visible in Buddhist texts.
• In later centuries, women, both bhikkhunis and upasikas, were prominent as donors at Buddhist stupa-monastery sites. However, after its establishment, the bhikkhuni sangha appears to be a less prominent entity in the available sources.

Buddhist Councils

First Council

• After the death of Lord Buddha in 486 B.C., the First Buddhist Council was convened at Sattapanni cave near Rajagriha.
• Led by King Ajatasatru and presided over by Mahakassapa, the council aimed to compile the dhamma (religious doctrines) and the Vinaya (monastic code).
• It resulted in the establishment of the Sutta Pitaka(Buddha's sermons) and the Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules) by Ananda and Upali, respectively.
• Approximately 500 Buddhists attended this council, significantly contributing to the popularity of Buddhism.

Second Council

• Held at Vaishali in 386 B.C., a century after the Buddha's death, during the reign of Kalasoka of the Sisunaga dynasty.
• Presided over by Sabakami, the council relaxed certain Buddhist principles.
• Disagreements over monastic discipline led to the split between the orthodox Sthaviravadins and the unorthodox Mahasanghikas.
• The Sthaviravadins eventually gave rise to various schools, including the Theravada school.

Third Council

• Convened at Pataliputra around 250 B.C. during the reign of Asoka, presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa.
• The council aimed to resolve conflicting ideas and reached a consensus, leading to the expulsion of heretics and the establishment of the Sthaviravada School as orthodox.
• A new classification of Buddhist texts was introduced with the addition of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, leading to the Tripitaka.
• The teachings accepted by this council became known as Sthaviras or Theravada.
• Asoka sent missions to various regions to spread Buddhism, and his son Mahinda introduced the Tripitaka to Sri Lanka, along with commentaries from the Third Council, forming the “Pali Canon”.

Fourth Council

• Took place at KundalabanaVihar in Kashmir during the reign of Kanishka in the 1st century A.D.
• Presided over by Vasumitra with Asvaghosha as vice-president.
• Focused on resolving differences among the 18 sects of Buddhism and composing commentaries.
• Results included the division of Buddhists into Mahayana and Hinayana sects, codification of doctrines in the Mahabivasha, and conducting deliberations in Sanskrit.
• The Mahayana sect, led by Asvaghosha, emphasized the worship of the Buddha’s image.

Spread of Theravada

• The Theravada tradition is based on teachings established by the Third Council, believed to contain the authentic teachings of the Buddha.
• Sri Lanka has been pivotal in preserving Theravada scriptures and practices. After the Third Council, the Tripitaka, a collection of sutras, was taken to Sri Lanka.
• Initially, many sutras were in languages other than Pali, but over time, all teachings were translated into Pali (around 35 BCE).
• In the early days, most ordained Sangha were known as parivrajahas(wanderers) and would gather during the rainy season when travel was difficult.
• Over time, as buildings were donated, the Sangha became more settled. Within a century after the Buddha’s death, monasteries became the primary means of preserving the teachings.
• Extra monastic rules were introduced, and there was a brief period when Buddhism was banned in Sri Lanka. However, it was later restored with teachings from Thailand, which in turn had originated in Sri Lanka.
• Today, the Theravada tradition thrives in countries like Sri Lanka,Thailand,Burma,Cambodia, and Laos.
• The core teachings of the Four Noble Truths and meditation are central to Theravada practice. In India, non-Mahayana or Hinayana sects developed independently from the form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
• Presently, there is no Hinayana tradition, but Theravada is considered the tradition most akin to Hinayana. The ultimate goal in Theravada and other non-Mahayana practices is to attain the state of an Arhat, as Buddhahood is seen as nearly unachievable for most individuals in this era.
• While helping other sentient beings is acknowledged as an important Buddhist practice, the primary motivation for following the spiritual path is personal liberation, or Nirvana.

Spread of Mahayana

• The Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata(emptiness), developed by Nagarjuna, asserts that everything is ‘Void’ (not just the self), as expounded in his text Madhyamika-karika.
• In the 4th Century CE, Masters Asanga and Vasubandhu produced extensive writings on Mahayana, primarily in Sanskrit.
• Mahayana philosophy builds upon the older tradition, accepting its teachings while offering different interpretations. A key aspect is the belief that Buddhahood is attainable by all sentient beings, countering the traditional view that only a few can achieve it.
• The Mahayana path involves taking the Bodhisattva vows, with the main vow being to liberate all sentient beings from suffering, not just in this life but in all future lives until this goal is accomplished.
• Mahayana primarily developed in North India and spread to China and Tibet. In China, Buddhist philosophy and practice blended with Taoist and Confucian elements. Through China, Mahayana Buddhism reached countries like Korea,Vietnam,Cambodia,Laos, and Japan. The Ch’an tradition in China was later introduced into Japan.
• In the 6th century AD, tantric texts within the Mahayana tradition emerged, known as Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana. These practices are profound psychological techniques aimed at rapid attainment of Buddhahood, not for oneself, but to maximize the ability to help others.
• The motivation is to achieve Buddhahood quickly to benefit others as much as possible. Depending on the type of tantra, additional vows may be required on top of the Refuge and Bodhisattva vows, along with specific commitments like retreats, daily mantra recitations, or daily meditation.
• In the 8th century, Mahayana and Tantrayana (or Vajrayana) traditions of North Indian Buddhism were introduced into Tibet. Only in Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia was a nearly complete set of tantric teachings preserved.
• The Tibetan tradition also spread to the Himalayan regions of Ladakh(Northwest India),Sikkhim(Northeast India),Nepal, and Mongolia, and is virtually identical to the Tibetan tradition. Remnants of Vajrayana can also be found in China and countries like Korea and Japan.

Comparison between Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism

• Mahayana means “great vehicle,” while Hinayana means “lesser vehicle.”
• A great vehicle is like a large ship that can carry many people over the ocean, while a lesser vehicle is like a small boat that can carry only a few people across a river.
• The term vehicle refers to the Buddha’s teachings, which aim to transport people from the shore of this impure world to the other shore of enlightenment.
• Mahayana promises spiritual liberation to both monks and ordinary people, making it the greater vehicle because it can help a larger number of people attain enlightenment.
• Mahayana is based on the principle of universal liberation from suffering for all beings.Hinayana, on the other hand, calls for strict discipline that may not be feasible for ordinary people, thus carrying fewer people towards enlightenment.
• Mahayana Buddhism followers view the Buddha as a God who came down to Earth to help people cross the sea of life, making him worthy of worship.
• Hinayana Buddhists, however, see the Buddha as a human who simply discovered the path to Nirvana. They believe the Buddha was an ordinary person with human-like characteristics and that if he were a God, he would have already known about old age, disease, and death.
• Hinayana Buddhism is predominantly found in the South and West, covering regions like Indochina and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). In contrast,Mahayana Buddhism is primarily found in the North and West, covering areas such as China, Korea, Japan, and Tibet.
• Mahayan sect spread from India to various nations, including China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, and Mongolia.
• Hinayana texts were early works written in Pali, such as Kamma and Dhamma. In contrast,Mahayana texts were early works written in Sanskrit, like Karma and Dharma.
• Mahayana Buddhism worships bodhisattvas and reads the Mahayana sutras, while Hinayana Buddhism does not engage in these practices.
• Hinayana Buddhism follows the original teachings of the Buddha, emphasizing individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation. In contrast,Mahayana Buddhism believes in the divinity of the Buddha and practices idol worship and the use of mantras.
• Both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism started with the common goal of Nirvana but took different paths to achieve it.

The Buddhist Scriptures

Canonical Pali texts

• The sacred scriptures of the Buddhists are in Pali. The word Pali means simply ‘text’ or ‘sacred text’.
• As a language,Pali is an archaic Prakrit and in the days of Buddha was the spoken language of the Magadha and adjoining territories.
• The Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitaka, i.e.‘Threefold Basket’, which consists of:

Vinay Pitaka

• It contains pronouncements attributed to the Buddha, laying down numerous rules for the conduct of the Order.
• Supplementing this, the Mahavagga, ‘Great Section’, lays down rules for admission to the monastic order, regulations on dress, etc.
• The Chullavagga, ‘Smaller Section’, contains duties for monks and nuns, edifying Buddhist stories, methods of settling disputes among monks, etc.

Sutta Pitaka

• The largest and most important of the ‘Three Baskets” is the Sutta Pitaka which consists chiefly of discourses both small and long as delivered by the Buddha himself.
• It is divided into five groups called Nikaya.
• Digha (Long) Nikaya: a collection of long sermons ascribed to the Buddha including the Buddha’s last speeches and an account of his death and the funeral ceremonies.
• Majjhima (Medium) Nikaya: a collection of medium sized sermons
• Samyutta (connected) Nikaya: discusses Buddhist doctrines.
• Anguttara (Graduated) Nikaya: a collection of over 2,000 brief statements, arranged artificially in eleven sections, enumerating doctrines and principles;
• Khuddaka (minor) Nikaya: miscellaneous works in prose and verse added later to the canon than the four other Nikayas.
• It comprises fifteen books of miscellaneous which are essential for an understanding of Buddhism.
• The principal texts of the Khuddaka-Nikaya are often taken to include a few of the most extensive of the Pali canonical writings. The important ones are given:

Khuddaka Patha

• It is a book for youngsters when they join the Sangha.

Dhammapada(“Verses on Virtue”)

• The best known of the canonical texts, it is a collection of aphoristic verses garnered from the sayings of Buddha.
• It is regarded as one of the great religious texts of the world.

Suttanipata

• It preserves many fragments of the oldest Buddhist poetry and gives valuable information on the social and religious conditions of Buddha’s time.

Jataka

• It is a collection of over 500 poems, briefly outlining folk-tales and other stories.

Bhuddhavamsa

• It records legends in verse about the twenty-four Buddhas who preceded Gautama in earlier times.

Theragatha

• Literally meaning “Hymns of the elder Monks” it contains some of the India’s greatest religious poetry.

Therigatha

• The Hymns of the Nuns.

Abhidhamma Pitaka

• It consists of a number of works on Buddhist psychology and metaphysics.
• Of its seven books, the Dhammasangani provides a good exposition of Buddhist philosophy, psychology and ethics; and the Kathavatthu, ascribed to Moggaliputta Tissa, is valuable for the light it throws on the evolution of Buddhist dogmas.

Non-Canonical Pali Texts

• These were composed during the Kushana periods. Prominent works are:
• “Milindapanho”(Questions of Menander): which gives on account of the discussions of the Greek King, Menander and the monk Nagasena;
• ‘Mahavastu(Great Subject): it presents some Hinayana doctrines along with additional metaphysics of the Mahasanghika sects;
• ‘Lalitavistara(30 B.C.): an anonymous biography of Buddha written in the Gatha (Sanskritized Prakrit) form of language, it contains some Hinayana material, but is largely Mahayanist.
• Verse chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa which tell the history of Buddhism in Ceylon; and give valuable information on political and social history also.
• Of these the earliest,Dipavamsa(the “Island Chronicle”) dates from the 4th century A.D; and has no literary merit, but the Mahavamsa(“Great Chronicle”) of the following century, composed by the monk Mahanama contains passages of beauty and vigour.
• It was continued as the Culvamsa(“Lesser Chronicle”) by a succession of monks down to the fall of the kingdom of Kandy to the British.

Sanskrit Texts

• With the rise of Mahayanism, Sanskrit was adopted by the Mahayanist School.
• There are a few Sanskrit texts belonging to the Hinayana School.
• The bulk of Buddhist literature in Sanskrit belongs to the Mahayana School.
• Among the Mahayana Sutras, the following texts or dharmas, also called the Vaipulya Sutras (“Expanded Sermons”) are regarded as the most important.
• Prajna-Praramita:
• It is the most important philosophical work of the Mahayana school which deals especially with the notion of Sunya or nothingness.
• According to it, beyond this impermanent and illusory world is a new world of freedom, which one can attain with the aid of Prajna or intuitive and transcendental wisdom.
• Sadharma-Pundarika(250 A.D.):
• The Lotus of the Good Law, also called the Lotus Sutra, has been described as the Bible of half-Asia.
• It is of unknown authorship and is the most important of all the Sutras.
• It contains all the characteristic features of Mahayana school and has the sermon delivered by a transfigured and glorified Buddha on the Gridharkuta mountain to an august assembly.
• Avatamsaka:
• Supposed to be the teaching given by Buddha three weeks after his enlightenment, it contains the doctrine of 'interpenetration'.
• The twenty-fifth chapter expounds the doctrine of Parinamana, the 'transference' of merit, whereby one’s merit can be turned over for the Salvation of others.
• Gandha-Vyuha:
• It is actually a part of the above Avatamsaka Sutra, but is often called a Sutra in its own right.
• Sukhavati-Vyuha:
• Deals with the subject of salvation through faith in Amitabha.
• Vajrachhedikaor the Diamond Sutra
• It expounds the doctrine of Sunyata and clarifies several other concepts central to Mahayana.
• Mahapari Nirvana
• Lankavatara– (400 A.D.):
• Supposedly wrtitten by Vasubandhu, it teaches ultimate reality of mind alone.
• Surangama:
• It outlines the means of attaining enlightenment by concentration and meditation.

Factors for the Rise of Buddhism

1. Influence of Time:

• The 6th Century B.C. was a favorable period for the spread of Buddhism. During this time, people were disillusioned with superstitions, complex rituals, and blind beliefs.
• The Buddha's message offered relief to those burdened by Brahmanism, attracting them with the simplicity and religious tolerance of Buddhism.

2. Simple Doctrines:

• Buddhism's doctrines were simpler than those of Jainism, making them easy for people to understand and follow.
• Concepts like the ‘Arya Satya,’ ‘Eight-fold Path,’ and non-violence were straightforward and accessible.
• Buddhism was less severe than Jainism and less complex than Vedic rituals, appealing to those weary of Brahminical manipulations.

3. Simple Language:

• The Buddha communicated his teachings in Prakrit, the spoken language of the people, making his message easily understandable.
• In contrast, the Vedic religion relied on Sanskrit, which was controlled by the Brahmins.
• Buddhism’s simple philosophy and appealing message resonated with the masses.

4. Personality of Buddha:

• The Buddha’s kind and humble personality, along with his calm demeanor and practical moral solutions, endeared him to the people.
• His life of renunciation and dedication to spreading his message through sermons inspired awe and admiration.
• This contributed to the rapid spread of Buddhism.

5. Inexpensive:

• Buddhism was less expensive than the Vedic religion, which was characterized by costly rituals.
• It emphasized practical morality over rites and rituals, attracting people who preferred a spiritual path without material obligations.

6. No Caste Barrier:

• Buddhism rejected caste distinctions and promoted equality among all castes.
• Its followers gathered regardless of caste to discuss ethics and morality, appealing particularly to non-Brahmins.
• Buddhism attracted converts from non-Vedic areas, especially in Magadha, and was more liberal and democratic than Brahmanism.
• Women were also admitted to the Sangha, further promoting equality.

7. Royal Patronage:

• Royal support played a significant role in the spread of Buddhism. Kings like Prasenjit, Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanishka, and Harshavardhan were strong patrons of Buddhism.
• Ashoka sent his children to Sri Lanka to spread Buddhism, while Kanishka and Harshavardhan worked tirelessly for its promotion throughout India.

8. Role of the Universities:

• Universities such as Nalanda, Taxila, Puspagiri, and Vikramsila contributed to the spread of Buddhism by attracting students from various regions.
• Renowned scholars and teachers in these universities, like Hiuen Tsang from Nalanda, played a crucial role in promoting Buddhism.

9. Buddhist Monks and Sangha:

• Buddhist monks and the Sangha were instrumental in spreading Buddhism.
• Disciples like Ananda, Sariputta, Maudgalayana, Sudatta, and Upali were dedicated to spreading the teachings of Buddhism throughout India.
• The Sangha established branches across the country, attracting local people to become monks or lay-worshippers and leading lives of austere serenity.

10. Buddhist Councils:

• Buddhist Councils played a vital role in the teaching and spread of Buddhism by maintaining popular interest and involvement.
• Regular intervals of these councils kept the enthusiasm towards Buddhism alive among the people.

11. Absence of Strong Rivals:

• From its inception in the 6th Century B.C., Buddhism faced no strong rivals.
• Though Jainism gained popularity, its strict laws pushed people away.
• Buddhism’s missionary zeal was also absent in contemporary Hinduism, and there were no reformers to purify and spread Brahmanical faith.
• With Islam and Christianity yet to emerge, Buddhism enjoyed unrivaled influence across India.

Causes for the Decline of Buddhism

1. Corruptions in Buddhist Sanghas:

• Over time, the Buddhist Sangha became corrupt.
• Monks and followers were drawn towards luxury and pleasure.
• Their greed for valuable gifts like gold and silver made them materialistic.
• Their indisciplined lifestyle led to popular hatred, diminishing people's inclination towards Buddhism.

2. Reform in Hinduism:

• Buddhism had severely challenged Brahminical faith.
• To survive, Hinduism reformed itself, simplifying its complex rites and making itself more attractive.
• Hindus began to view the Buddha as a Hindu incarnation, embracing non-violence.
• This revival diminished the appeal of Buddhism.

3. Division among the Buddhists:

• Buddhism faced internal divisions into various sects like Hinayana,Mahayana,Vajrayana,Tantrayana, and Sahajayana.
• These divisions, along with the influence of tantricism, complicated Buddhism and drove people away.
• The original simplicity of Buddhism was lost, leading to its decline.

4. Use of Sanskrit Language:

• Buddhism initially spread through Pali and Prakrit, the spoken languages of the people.
• However, at the Fourth Buddhist Council, Sanskrit replaced these languages.
• Sanskrit was complex and not widely understood, making the teachings less accessible.

5. Patronage of Brahmanism:

• Brahminical faith regained prominence over time.
• Pushyamitra Sunga, the Brahmin commander who assassinated the last Maurya ruler,Vrihadratha, and founded the Sunga dynasty, promoted Brahminical practices.
• He destroyed stupas and monasteries, and many Buddhist monks were killed.
• Later, the Gupta emperors also favored Brahminical faith, furthering the decline of Buddhism.

6. Role of Hindu Preachers:

• Harsavardhan expelled Brahmins from a religious council in Kanauj, leading to a Brahminical resurgence under Kumarila Bhatta.
• Adi Sankaracharya revived Hinduism by defeating Buddhist scholars in debates.
• Subsequent Hindu reformers like Ramanuja,Nimbarka, and Ramananda continued this trend, restoring Hinduism's glory at Buddhism's expense.

7. Rifts in Buddhist Order:

• Internal divisions within the Buddhist order hindered the rise of new apostles.
• The absence of dynamic preachers like Ananda,Sariputta, and Maudgalayana led to a loss of spirit and missionary zeal.
• This contributed to Buddhism's decline.

8. Buddha Worship:

• Image worship was introduced by Mahayana Buddhists, who began worshipping the Buddha's image.
• This practice contradicted Buddhism's principles against complex rites and rituals.
• As a result, Buddhism began to resemble Hinduism, leading to a decline in its distinct identity.

9. Lose of Royal Patronage:

• Buddhism lost royal patronage over time, with no significant kings supporting it after Asoka,Kaniska, and Harsavardhan.
• Royal patronage was crucial for the spread of any faith, and its absence paved the way for Buddhism's decline.

10. Huna Invasion:

• The Huna invasion severely impacted Buddhism.
• Leaders like Toamana and Mihirakula opposed non-violence and killed many Buddhists in northwestern India.
• This instilled fear in Buddhists, causing them to abandon or hide their faith.
• The invasion weakened and depleted Buddhism.

11. Emergence of Rajputs:

• The rise of Rajput dynasties, known for their warfare, contributed to Buddhism's decline.
• Rajput kings like Bundela,Chahamana,Chauhan, and Rathore could not tolerate Buddhism's message of non-violence.
• Buddhists faced persecution from these rulers, leading to their exodus from India and weakening Buddhism.

12. Muslim Invasion:

• The Muslim invasions of India nearly obliterated Buddhism.
• Beginning in 712 A.D., these invasions forced Buddhist monks to seek refuge in Nepal and Tibet.
• Ultimately, Buddhism died out in India, its land of origin.
• Despite its decline in India, Buddhism continued to flourish in other countries for centuries and still has a large number of followers worldwide.

Contribution of Buddhism

• With its emphasis on non-violence and the sanctity of animal life, Buddhism boosted the cattle wealth of the country.
• The earliest Buddhist text,Suttanipata, declares the cattle to be givers of food, beauty and happiness, and thus pleads for their protection.
• The brahmanical insistence on the sacredness of the cow and non-violence may have been apparently derived from Bud­dhist teachings.
• Buddhism created and developed a new awareness in the field of intellect and culture.
• The place of superstition was taken by logic and it promoted rationalism among people.
• Promotion of Pali and many local languages, such as Kannada, Gujarati, etc.
• The Buddhist monasteries developed as great centers of learning, and began to be called residential universities like those of Nalanda and Vikramshila in Bihar, Valabhi in Gujarat, Taxila, and Nagarjuna Konda.
• In the field of architecture and art, Buddhism takes the credit for:
  • the first human statues to be worshipped;
  • stone panels depicting the life of the Buddha at Gaya in Bihar and at Sanchi and Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh;
  • cave architecture in the Barabar hills at Gaya and in western India around Nasik;
  • art pieces of Amravati and Nagarjunakonda.

Buddhist Architecture

Stupa: The Stupa was a conventional representation of a funeral tumulus, evolved out of earthen funerary mound in which the relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monk are preserved.

• The Stupa at Sanchi comprises of an almost hemispherical dome (anda) flattened at the top, supported on a low circular base (Medhi).
• Over the dome is a square pavilion called harmika (box) enclosed by a balustrade surrounding the sacred parasol (chatra).
• Pradaksinapatha was the path for clockwise circumbulation surrounded by a fence built encircling the stupa.
• The whole structure is surrounded by a massive rail with four imposing gateways on the four sides.

Chaitya: The chaitya shrine in its typical form was a long rectangular hall, apsidal at the rear end and divided into three sections by two rows of pillars along the length of the hall meeting at the back end.Rock cut chaitya shrines are at Bhaja near Poona (2nd century B.C) Kondane Pitalkhora, Bedsa, Nasik, Kanheri, Ajanta, Karle and other places in Western India.Vihara: Fragmentary remains of many monasteries (vihara) have been excavated in the north as well as in the south. The monastery at Nalanda belongs to the fifth century A.D. and one at Paharpur (Somapura Mahavihara) was established towards the close of the 8th or the beginning of the 9th century.

Relevance of Buddhism in Modern World

• The eight stages can be grouped into Wisdom (right understanding and intention), Ethical Conduct (right speech, action and livelihood) and Meditation(right effort, mindfulness and concentration).
• His emphasis on compassion will help resolving issue of Poverty, inequality etc.
• Emphasis on non-violence can help resolving challenges of extremism, domestic violence etc.
• Gandhiji used some of his ideas to fight colonialism.
• Buddha also focussed on harmonious social relation it will help dealing with issue of various caste and class based social conflict.
• He brought women at par with men in religious field. It will help the idea of women empowerment.