Spread of Marxian Socialism | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The First International (1864-1876)

• International Workingmen’s Association (1864–1876), known as the First International, was created to unite various left-wing socialist, communist, and anarchist groups, along with trade unions, focusing on the working class and class struggle.
• Founded in 1864 during a workers' meeting in London by influential British and French trade-union leaders.
• Karl Marx, though not involved in the meeting's organization, was elected to the provisional General Council and quickly took on a leadership role.
• Marx wrote a famous address outlining the International's rules, principles, and goals, which is considered the inaugural address of the First International.
• Engels influenced the change of the motto from “all men are brothers” to “working men of all countries, unite!”, reflecting Marxist and Engels' view of proletarian internationalism.
• The International became a centralized organization based on individual members in local groups, integrated into national federations, with some trade unions and associations affiliated.
• The Congress, its supreme body, met annually in different cities to set principles and policies, with the first congress held in 1866 in Geneva.
• The Geneva Congress is notable for making the 8-hour working day an important goal for the International Socialist movement.
• Annual congresses were held in various European towns for six years, despite facing persecution and being declared illegal in many countries.
• Exerted influence on workers' movements in Europe and North America.
• Example: In 1867, when 5,000 bronze workers in Paris faced dismissal, the International raised funds from workers in other countries to support them, forcing factory owners to withdraw the threat.
• During the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, workers from both countries condemned the war and expressed solidarity, emphasizing that workers of all nations are friends and despots are enemies.

Failure of the First International

• The First International faced internal conflicts from the start, with different socialist ideologies competing, including Marxism, Proudhonism, Blanquism, and Bakunin's anarchism.
• When Bakunin and his followers joined in 1868, the International split into two camps led by Marx and Bakunin.
• These groups disagreed on their strategies for achieving socialism.
• Eventually, the anarchists were expelled.
• In 1872, the conflict culminated in a split at the Hague Congress, known as the "red" (Marxist) and "black" (anarchist) divide.
• Bismarck noted the significance of this split, fearing the united strength of the red and black factions.
• The failure of the Communist uprising in Paris in 1871, which Marx supported, tarnished the International's reputation.
• The organization faced external attacks and internal strife, with its last Congress in Geneva in 1873.
• Despite its image as a powerful entity with millions of members, the International's actual strength was much less, with a core membership of around 20,000.

Paris Commune, 1871

• Paris Commune was a revolt in Paris against the French government from March 18 to May 28, 1871. It happened after France lost the Franco-German War and Napoleon III's Empire fell.
• When Paris heard about the defeat at the Battle of Sedan against Prussia, a provisional Republic was declared. This government ended when Paris surrendered in 1871, and a National Assembly was elected to approve the treaty with Germany.
• The Assembly appointed Thiers as the Executive Head.
• Thiers made peace with Germany through the Treaty of Frankfurt, which involved giving up Alsace and Lorraine and paying a large indemnity. Until the indemnity was fully paid, a German army occupied Northeast France, supported by the French government.
• A brutal Civil War ensued between the National Assembly and the people of Paris. The Parisians, with republican and communistic beliefs, feared that the Assembly, dominated by royalists, would restore the monarchy.
• Parisians were also upset because Paris was decapitalized in favor of Versailles.
• Paris was filled with demobilized soldiers,unemployed workers,socialists, and anarchists.
• When the government tried to remove guns from Paris to restore order, the city revolted and established the Commune, demanding complete self-government for Paris and similar Communes in the provinces, organizing France on a communistic basis.
• Thiers took a strong stance, and fighting continued for six weeks under the watch of the victorious Germans, who were camped on nearby hills.
• Eventually, government troops from Versailles suppressed the revolt.
• The government exacted terrible revenge on the Communards. Paris was defeated, and socialism was effectively suppressed until the end of the century.
• After the 1871 Paris Commune, the socialist movement and the entire workers' movement were severely impacted and weakened for many years.

The Second International

• In the 1870s and 1880s, nearly every European country saw the formation of socialist parties. These parties actively participated in elections and secured significant representation in parliament. Additionally, trade unions gained strength, leading to an increase in strikes.
• The German Socialist Party emerged as the largest in Europe.
• In Britain, various groups such as the Social Democratic Federation,Socialist League, and the Fabian Society were established.
• France witnessed the emergence of multiple socialist parties.
• In the United States and other countries in the Americas, numerous socialist parties came into existence.
• In Japan, the socialist movement began in the 1890s.
• To unify socialist parties from different countries into an international organization, a Congress was convened in Paris on July 14, 1889. This Congress led to the establishment of the Second International.
• The Congress made several important decisions:
  • To designate May 1 as a day of working-class solidarity.
  • To organize a large international demonstration on May 1, demanding a limitation of working hours to 8 hours.
• On May 1, 1890, millions of workers across Europe and America went on strike and held massive demonstrations.
• The Second International, a federation of socialist parties and trade unions, significantly influenced the ideology, policy, and methods of the European labor movement from the late 19th century until the outbreak of World War I.
• Unlike the First International, the Second was based on the membership of national parties and trade unions, making it a loose federation rather than a centralized organization.
• Its headquarters was in Brussels, where the second congress of the International convened in 1891.
• The congresses were held in various cities at irregular intervals, rather than annually.
• Following the formation of the Second International, there was a steady increase in the strength of socialist parties and trade unions. By 1912, the Second International represented socialist and social democratic parties from all European countries, as well as the United States, Canada, and Japan, with a voting strength of nearly nine million.
• One of its primary concerns was the prevention of a general European war. After extensive debate, it rejected the idea of using a general strike to avert the threat of a widespread war. Instead, it called for the introduction of compulsory courts of arbitration to settle disputes between nations and advocated for the reduction of armaments, with the ultimate goal of total disarmament.
• At the Stuttgart Congress in 1907, a resolution drafted by Vladimir Lenin, Rosa Luxemburg, and L. Martov was adopted, pledging member parties in warring countries to use the social and economic crisis caused by the war to promote social revolution.

Achievements of the Second International

• Campaign Against Militarism and War: The Second International actively campaigned against militarism and the horrors of war, recognizing the devastating impact these forces had on societies and advocating for peace.
• Principle of Equality and Independence: It emphasized the fundamental equality of all peoples and their right to freedom and national independence, standing against any form of oppression or domination.
• Condemnation of Colonialism: The International condemned colonialism and committed socialist parties to oppose the exploitation and subjugation of colonial peoples, advocating for their rights and autonomy.
• Capitalism as the Cause of War: It was believed that capitalism was the root cause of war. The Second International decided that socialists should use the economic and political crises exacerbated by war to mobilize the masses and expedite the downfall of capitalist rule.
• International Solidarity of Workers: The socialist movement made the international solidarity of workers a fundamental principle, fostering unity and cooperation among workers across nations.
• Joint Leadership During War: During the Russo-Japanese War, the leaders of the Japanese Socialist Party and Russian Socialists were elected as joint presidents of the Second International at its Congress in 1904, symbolizing solidarity amidst conflict.
• Sixth Congress and Indian National Movement: The Sixth Congress in 1904, held in Amsterdam, was attended by Dadabhai Naoroji, a prominent figure in the Indian National Movement. He advocated for India’s freedom, highlighting the international support for colonial liberation.
• Support for Indian Freedom: Naoroji was supported by British delegates at the Congress, showcasing a rare moment of solidarity across colonial and imperial lines. The Congress was urged to treat Naoroji’s statements with great reverence due to his lifelong dedication to India’s struggle for freedom.
• Recognition of Sacrifice: The Congress acknowledged Naoroji’s 55 years of sacrifice for India’s freedom, underscoring the importance of individual contributions to the larger cause of liberation.

Weaknesses of the Second International 

The Second International, unlike its predecessor, faced several weaknesses that impacted its effectiveness and unity. Here are the key points outlining these weaknesses:

• Loose Federation: The Second International was a loose federation of socialist parties from various countries, unlike the more unified structure of the First International.
• Divergent Approaches: While many socialist parties had become mass organizations, significant differences emerged among them. Some factions believed in revolutionary methods to overthrow capitalism, while others advocated for achieving socialism through gradual reforms.
• Support for Colonialism: Some socialist parties even supported colonialism, which created further divisions within the International.
• Dilemma During World War I: The power dynamics during World War I posed a dilemma for socialist parties in belligerent countries. Although the Second International had a clear stance on war, individual socialist parties had serious disagreements.
• Fear of Repression: Some socialist parties feared repression if they opposed the war. For example, Jean Jaurès, a prominent French socialist leader, was assassinated on the eve of World War I for campaigning against the war.
• Support for Governments: When World War I erupted, most socialist parties supported their respective governments, with the notable exceptions of Serbian and Russian socialists. This led to the disintegration of the Second International and divided the socialist movement in various countries.

Third International (Comintern)

• The Third International, also known as the Communist International (Comintern), was an alliance of national communist parties established in 1919 in Moscow by Lenin.
• While its official goal was to promote global revolution by supporting communist uprisings worldwide, the Comintern primarily served as a means for the Soviet Union to exert control over the international communist movement.
• The Comintern arose from a split within the Second International over differing responses to World War I.
• The right wing of the Second International supported their national governments in the war, while the centre criticized this nationalism and sought peace.
• Lenin led the left faction, advocating for a transnational class struggle and the need for a new International focused on civil war.
• After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, Lenin convened the first Comintern congress in 1919 to challenge efforts to revive the Second International.
• The first congress had limited attendance, but the second in 1920 attracted delegates from 37 countries.
• Membership in the Comintern required parties to adopt a Soviet-style structure and expel moderates.
• The Comintern's structure mirrored that of the Soviet Communist Party.
• To gain support from Asian peoples, the Bolsheviks criticized Western imperialism, relinquishing Czarist privileges in China and rights in Turkey.

Comintern Policy Shifts (1921-1943)

• 1921: Shift in Comintern Policy: The realization that a world revolution was not imminent led to a new Comintern policy aimed at gaining broad working-class support.
• Formation of United Fronts: The Comintern advocated for the formation of "united fronts" of workers to make "transitional demands" on existing regimes.
• 1923: Policy Abandonment: This policy was abandoned in 1923 when the Comintern's left wing temporarily gained control.
• Stalin's Leadership: Joseph Stalin's assault on the left faction of his party led to a rapprochement with moderate socialism. His subsequent move against the right wing of the party resulted in another shift in Comintern policy.
• 1928: Adoption of Extreme Leftism: At the sixth congress in 1928, Comintern adopted a policy of "extreme leftism" set forth by Stalin, branding moderate socialists and social democrats as the chief enemies of the working class.
• Neglect of Fascist Threat: The rising fascist movement was largely ignored, with communists focusing their attacks on social democrats rather than Nazis, as seen in Germany in the early 1930s.
• Imminence of World Revolution: Despite Stalin's focus on "building socialism in one country," the idea of an imminent world revolution was revived.
• 1935: Seventh Comintern Congress: At the Comintern's seventh and last congress in 1935, Soviet national interests prompted a new policy shift. The primary goal became the defeat of fascism, leading communists to join with moderate socialist and liberal groups in "popular fronts" against fascism.
• Tool of Soviet Foreign Policy: The Comintern became a tool of Soviet foreign policy, and the program of popular fronts ended with Stalin's pact with Adolf Hitler in 1939.
• 1943: Dissolution of Comintern: As Germany and the Soviet Union went to war, Stalin officially dissolved the Comintern in 1943 to alleviate fears of communist subversion among his allies.
• 1947: Establishment of Cominform: In 1947, Stalin set up a new center of international control called the Cominform, which lasted until 1956. The international communist movement fragmented after 1956 due to the developing split between the Soviet Union and China, among other factors.

Spread of Marxian Socialism

Germany

• The Social Democratic Party (SPD) in Germany, led by Ferdinand Lassalle, became the largest and most powerful socialist party in Europe, despite operating illegally until the anti-socialist laws were lifted in 1890.
• In the 1890 election, the SPD secured 35 seats in the Reichstag.
• The party had 90 daily newspapers and was supported by trade unions,co-ops,sports clubs, a youth organization, and a women’s organization.
• Under pressure from the growing SPD, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck introduced limited welfare provisions, reduced working hours, nationalized railways, and established a system of old age pensions and workmen’s insurance.
• Germany experienced over forty years of sustained economic growth, leading some SPD leaders to believe that capitalism would gradually evolve into socialism.
• August Bebel served as chairman of the SPD from 1892 until 1913, keeping the party disciplined and prominent in the Reichstag. He supported Marxism but also favored nationalism.
• Starting in 1896,Eduard Bernstein argued for an evolutionary transition to socialism in his series “Problems of Socialism.” His ideas, known as revisionism, sought to modify traditional Marxist beliefs.
• Despite the SPD's official adherence to Marxist revolutionary theory, its leadership increasingly adopted a reformist approach.
• In 1919,Friedrich Ebert, a prominent SPD leader, became the first President of the German Republic.

Russia

• The path of reform seemed blocked to Russian Marxists while Russia remained a stronghold of reaction.
• In the preface to the 1882 Russian edition of the Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels praised the Russian Marxists as the "vanguard of revolutionary action in Europe."
• However, the working class in Russia was a small minority of the population.
• Karl Marx believed that Russia was not ready for revolution due to its lag in industrialization compared to Western countries. Nonetheless, Russia was the first foreign country to translate Marx's significant work,Das Kapital.
• In 1883, George Plekhanev, a follower of Marx, established the Russian Social Democratic Party.
• In 1898, this party linked with various socialist groups to form the Russian Socialist Democratic Labour Party.
• In 1903, the party split into the Bolshevik ('Majority') and Menshevik ('Minority') factions over ideological and organizational differences, with Vladimir Lenin leading the more radical Bolsheviks.
• Both factions acknowledged Russia's economic backwardness and unpreparedness for socialism.
• The Mensheviks advocated for a capitalist revolution before socialism, favoring a liberal humanistic approach with cooperation among all classes.
• In contrast, Lenin and Trotsky believed that a revolution led by workers and peasants could achieve this goal.
• After the 1905 Russian Revolution, Trotsky argued that, unlike the French Revolution of 1789 and the European Revolutions of 1848, the capitalist class would not organize a revolution in Russia against absolutism. He believed this task fell to the working class, who would liberate the peasantry from feudalism and then immediately undertake socialist tasks, seeking a "permanent revolution" for international socialism.

France

• French socialism was severely weakened after the Paris Commune of 1871, with many of its leaders either killed or exiled.
• When the republicans gained power between 1877 and 1879, they cleared the socialist leaders of wrongdoing. In 1879, at the Marseilles Congress, workers' groups formed the Federation of the Socialist Workers of France.
• In 1882,Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, Karl Marx's son-in-law, left this federation to establish the French Workers' Party.
• Socialism's influence grew in France, but there were various socialist factions. By the end of 1896, there were six significant socialist groups, but this number dwindled to two by 1905.
• French Socialist Party(led by Jean Jaures)
• Was open to joining progressive governments.
• Socialist Party of France(led by Jules Guesde)
• Was against any participation in bourgeois coalitions.
• In a congress in Paris in 1905, the two parties united to form the French Section of the Workers’ International, part of the Second International, led by Jean Jaures and Jules Guesde.
• The SFIO(French Section of the Workers' International) followed Marxist principles but became more of a reformist party in practice.
• It grew rapidly, becoming a significant political force in France. In 1906, it secured 56 seats in Parliament, and by 1914, it had 103 seats in the Chamber of Deputies.

Britain

• In most European countries, Social Democratic parties were involved in parliamentary politics and the daily challenges faced by trade unions.
• The Fabian Society and the Independent Labour Party represented the cause of Socialism in Britain. Reform laws in 1867 and 1887 in England granted voting rights to the labor class, spurring the socialist movement.
• In 1881, H. M. Hyndman founded the Social Democratic Federation (SDF), Britain’s first organized socialist political party.
• Many trade unionists within the SDF felt the party was neglecting the industrial struggle.
• Figures like Engels and others believed the SDF, under Hyndman, was too dogmatic and remained an isolated sect.
• The SDF later evolved into the Labour Party, which won 42 seats in the 1910 election.
• In Britain and its dominions,labour parties were formed, primarily by trade unions, rather than by socialist activists seeking worker support.
• The Labour Party, initially the Labour Representation Committee, was established in 1900 by trade union representatives and affiliated socialist parties, including the Independent Labour Party and, for a time, the SDF and the Fabians.
• The British Labour Party first gained seats in the House of Commons in 1902.
• In the 1906 election, it secured 30 seats, and by 1910, it had 42 seats in parliament.
• After World War I, it garnered the majority of the working class away from the Liberal Party.

Socialism in the USA: A Historical Overview

• Socialism in the United States traces its roots back to the early 19th century when utopian communities inspired by thinkers like Charles Fourier emerged.
• In 1877, the Socialist Labor Party of America was established, advocating for Marxist principles under the leadership of Daniel De Leon.
• Anarchist movements also began to take shape in the U.S. by the 1880s.
• The Socialist Party of America was founded in 1901, and in 1905, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) was formed from various independent labor unions.
• By 1910, the Socialist Party saw significant electoral success, with a socialist Congressman and a socialist mayor being elected.
• In the 1912 presidential election, the Socialist Party of America garnered 6% of the total votes.
• The party opposed World War I, which led to government repression and a decline in the party's influence following the war.

Australia

• On December 1, 1899, Anderson Dawson of the Australian Labor Party became the Premier of Queensland, Australia, establishing the world’s first parliamentary socialist government.
• The Australian Labor Party achieved rapid success, forming its first national government in 1904.