Maurya Empire | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction to the Maurya Empire

Foundation and Expansion

• The empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE, who overthrew the Nanda Dynasty.
• He expanded the empire westward across central and western India, taking advantage of the chaos left by Alexander the Great's retreat.
• By 316 BCE, the Maurya Empire had occupied Northwestern India, defeating the satraps left by Alexander.
• Chandragupta also defeated an invasion by Seleucus I, gaining additional territory west of the Indus River.

Extent and Administration

• The Maurya Empire was one of the largest empires of its time and the largest in the Indian subcontinent.
• At its peak, it extended north into the Himalayas, east into Assam, and west into Balochistan and the Hindu Kush mountains of Afghanistan.
• The empire was expanded into central and southern India by Chandragupta and his son Bindusara.
• A small region of unexplored tribal and forested land near Kalinga (modern Odisha) was eventually conquered by Ashoka, Chandragupta's grandson.

Decline and Legacy

• After Ashoka's reign, the empire declined for about 50 years.
• It ultimately dissolved in 185 BCE, giving way to the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha.
• With an estimated population of 50 to 60 million, the Maurya Empire was one of the most populous empires of antiquity.
• Archaeologically, this period is associated with Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).

Rulers of the Maurya Dynasty

Expansion of the Mauryan State

• Magadha State in the 5th Century BCE: During the 5th century BCE, the Magadha state emerged as a powerful and influential kingdom in ancient India. It was known for its political strength, military prowess, and economic prosperity. The region's strategic location and fertile land contributed to its growth and dominance.
• The Nanda Empire at its Greatest Extent (circa 323 BCE): The Nanda Empire reached its peak under Dhana Nanda around 323 BCE. It was characterized by vast territorial control, a strong military, and a centralized administration. The Nandas were known for their wealth, military strength, and effective governance. Dhana Nanda's reign marked the height of Nanda power, with the empire covering a large part of northern India.
• The Maurya Empire (circa 320 BCE): The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya around 320 BCE, following his conquest of the Nanda Empire. With the help of his advisor Chanakya, Chandragupta overthrew Dhana Nanda and established a new dynasty. The Maurya Empire is notable for its centralized governance, military organization, and economic control.
• Chandragupta's Expansion (circa 305 BCE): Chandragupta Maurya expanded the empire's borders towards Seleucid Persia after defeating Seleucus I Nicator in 305 BCE. This conflict and subsequent treaty marked a significant expansion of Mauryan influence and demonstrated the empire's military strength.
• Bindusara's Expansion (circa 300 BCE): Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, further extended the empire into the Deccan Plateau region around 300 BCE. His reign is marked by territorial expansion and consolidation of power.
• Ashoka's Expansion (circa 265 BCE): Ashoka, one of the most renowned Mauryan emperors, expanded the empire into Kalinga during the Kalinga War in 265 BCE. This campaign was significant not only for territorial expansion but also for Ashoka's subsequent embrace of Buddhism and his efforts in promoting peace and welfare throughout the empire.

Overall Significance: The expansion of the Mauryan state from the Magadha region to a vast empire under Chandragupta, Bindusara, and Ashoka is a testament to the political and military organization of the time. The Mauryan Empire set the foundation for subsequent Indian empires, influencing governance, culture, and trade in the Indian subcontinent.

Chandragupta Maurya (320 BCE - 298 BCE)

His Background

Very little is known about Chandragupta’s ancestry. What is known is gathered from later classical Sanskrit literature, Buddhist sources, as well as classical Greek and Latin sources.

(a) Classical Greek and Latin Sources:

• Classical Greek and Latin sources refer to Chandragupta by the names “Sandracottos” or “Andracottus.”
• Plutarch, in his book “Parallel Lives,” reports that Androcottus (Chandragupta) met with Alexander around Takshasila in the northwest and viewed the ruling Nanda Empire negatively. Chandragupta is said to have angered the Nanda king during this encounter, which reportedly occurred around 326 BCE, suggesting a birth date for Chandragupta around 340 BCE.
• Plutarch and other Greco-Roman historians recognized the significance of Chandragupta Maurya’s conquests. Justin, a 2nd-century AD Latin historian, describes Chandragupta’s humble origins and his rise to lead a popular uprising against the Nanda king.

(b) Classical Sanskrit Sources:

• Chandragupta Maurya’s rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. The Sanskrit drama Mudrarakshasa(“The Signet of the Minister”) by Visakhadatta describes his royal ancestry and links him with the Nanda family. Mudrarakshasa calls him a “Nandanvaya,” implying he was a descendant of Nanda.
• The Mudrarakshasa, dated to the late 4th century, narrates the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to power in India. The Jaina work Parisishtaparvan also mentions Chandragupta’s alliance with the Himalayan king Parvatka, sometimes identified with Porus.

(c) Buddhist Sources:

• The Buddhist text Mahavamsa describes Chandragupta as a member of the Moriya clan, a division of the Kshatriya clan. The Mahaparinibbana Sutta states that the Moriyas belonged to the Kshatriya community. The Maurya clan is represented in medieval inscriptions as belonging to the solar race of Kshatriya.
• The Mahavamshatika connects Chandragupta with the Shakya clan of the Buddha.

Rise of Chandragupta Maurya and Foundation of Maurya Dynasty:

According to Mudrarakshasa and Greek & Roman Sources

• The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the help of Chanakya, a Brahmin teacher at Takshashila.
• Chanakya, insulted by the Nanda king Dhana Nanda, swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire.
• Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya to take over the throne of Magadha.
• Chandragupta, with Chanakya’s guidance, gathered a guerilla army and resources to fight against Dhana Nanda.
• They created an atmosphere of civil war in Magadha, leading to Dhana Nanda’s downfall.
• After Dhana Nanda’s resignation, Chandragupta Maurya was installed as the new king of Magadha.
• Chandragupta defeated Macedonian satrapies in the northwest, asserting control over the region.
• Chandragupta’s army was recorded to be around 400,000 soldiers, with some sources mentioning even larger numbers.
• He conquered the northwest after Alexander the Great’s death and dealt with the satrapies left in place by Alexander.
• Chandragupta defeated satrapies such as Eudemus and Peithon in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent by 317 BCE.

Expansion by Chandragupta Maurya:

• According to Megasthenes, Chandragupta’s army was recorded to be 400,000 soldiers. Strabo also mentions this number, while Pliny gives even larger figures of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. 
• The Mauryas’ military strength was significantly greater than that of the Nandas, attributed to their larger empire and greater resources.

Conquest of Seleucus’ Eastern Territories:

• Justin, a Greek writer, states that Chandragupta overran the whole of India with an army of 600,000. After Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, Chandragupta focused on Northwestern South Asia, defeating the satrapies left by Alexander, including Nicanor and Philip.
• Seleucus I Nicator, a Macedonian satrap, reconquered most of Alexander’s former empire and put eastern territories under his authority until he clashed with Chandragupta in 305 BCE.

Treaty between Chandragupta and Seleucus and Indo-Mauryan Relationship during Maurya:

• Following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, and Chandragupta married Seleucus’s daughter to formalize an alliance.
• Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants to Seleucus, a significant military asset.
• Seleucus dispatched ambassadors, including Megasthenes to Chandragupta and later Deimachus to Bindusara at the Maurya court.
• Ptolemy II Philadelphus, ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Maurya court.
• Exchanges continued between Mauryan and Greek rulers, evidenced by a Mauryan state department for Greek and Persian foreigners.
• Greek populations remained in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Mauryan rule.
• Ashoka’s edicts, written in Greek, and his emissaries to Greek rulers testify to these contacts.
• Greeks in India played a role in the propagation of Buddhism, with some Ashoka emissaries described as leading Greek Buddhist monks.
• Greeks may have contributed to the sculptural work of the Pillars of Ashoka and the blossoming of Mauryan art.

Jainism and Death

• According to Jain tradition, Chandragupta Maurya abdicated his throne at the beginning of the third century BC at the age of forty-two. He then became an ascetic under the last Shrutakevali, Bhadrabahu. Following this, he migrated south with Bhadrabahu and ultimately passed away in sallekhana (death by fasting), in accordance with Jain spiritual practices, at Sravaṇa Beḷgoḷa in present-day Karnataka. However, fifth-century inscriptions from the region suggest the possibility of a larger southern migration during that period.
• Chandragupta was also the first to adopt the titles Devampriya and Priyadarshi.

State Under Maurya

The Mauryan Empire established a highly sophisticated system of administration, as evidenced by the accounts of Megasthenes and Kautilya's Arthashastra.

Megasthenes’s Indika

• Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer and explorer from the Hellenistic period, was sent by Seleucus as an ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He resided in the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra and documented not only the administration of the city but also the broader Mauryan Empire. Although Megasthenes’s account does not survive in its entirety, fragments of it are found in the works of later Greek writers. These fragments have been compiled and published in a book called Indika, which provides valuable insights into the administration, society, and economy of Maurya times.
• Megasthenes’s Indica was a crucial source for later writers like Strabo and Arrian. At the beginning of his work, Megasthenes refers to the ancient Indians who were aware of the prehistoric arrival of Dionysus and Hercules (Greek heroes) in India, a story popular among Greeks during the Alexandrian period. Notably, he comments on Indian religions, mentioning devotees of Heracles and Dionysus, but not Buddhists, supporting the idea that Buddhism was not widely known before Ashoka's reign.

About Pataliputra

• Megasthenes describes various geographical features, including the Himalayas and the island of Sri Lanka. He notes the existence of numerous cities in India but considers Pataliputra the most significant. He refers to it as Palibothra, meaning a city with gates. According to Megasthenes, Pataliputra was surrounded by a deep ditch and a wooden wall topped with 570 towers, boasting 64 gates, rivaling the splendor of contemporary Persian cities like Susa. Excavations have revealed evidence of the ditch, timber palisades, and wooden houses.
• According to Megasthenes, Pataliputra measured 9.33 miles in length and 1.75 miles in breadth. This description aligns with present-day Patna, which is long and narrow, lending credibility to Megasthenes’s other statements.

About King

• Megasthenes provides a detailed account of Chandragupta Maurya’s personal life, describing his splendid lifestyle and the unique beauty of his palace. The king was known for not sleeping in the same room for two consecutive nights and for not favoring frequent meetings with the public.

About Administration

• Megasthenes offers extensive insights into the civil administration under Chandragupta Maurya. He emphasizes the king's autocratic rule and unlimited powers, noting that the king stayed informed about major events in his empire through a network of spies.
• In his account of Pataliputra’s administration, Megasthenes mentions that the city was governed by six committees, each consisting of five members. These committees were responsible for various functions, including sanitation, care of foreigners, registration of births and deaths, and regulation of weights and measures.
• Regarding the administration of the armed forces, Megasthenes states that it was managed by a board of thirty officers divided into six committees, each with five members. Each committee oversaw a different branch of the armed forces, including the army, cavalry, elephants, chariots, navy, and transport.

About Indian Society

• Megasthenes, an ancient Greek ambassador, described the Indian society under Chandragupta Maurya as disciplined and honest, observing that they lived simply and were unaware of writing. He noted the non-existence of slavery in India, claiming that all Indians were free. However, his observations may not represent the entire country since he did not travel throughout India. It's possible that the absence of slavery in North-Western India influenced his perception, leading him to believe that slavery was absent across the whole of India.
• Despite Megasthenes’ claims, evidence from Hindu law books, such as the Smritis, indicates that slavery was a recognized institution in ancient India during the Vedic period. Some scholars suggest that slavery in India was mild, with most slaves being domestic and treated as family members. The Shastras prohibited slave trade and prescribed various means for the liberation of slaves. Megasthenes was likely impressed by the intellectual climate of his time, and the Arthashastra's liberal rules regarding slaves reflect the society's relatively lenient attitude towards slavery.
• Megasthenes described the Indian society as divided into seven classes, presenting a caste system that differed from the present one. This suggests that the caste system was somewhat fluid and evolving during his time. However, being a foreigner, Megasthenes might not have had a complete understanding of the caste system. The seven classes he identified were:
• Philosophers (sophists):  Although fewer in number, they were highly respected.
• Husbandmen: They were the most numerous and devoted their lives to agriculture. They were considered public benefactors and were protected from harm.
• Shepherds (herdsmen): They lived in tents and paid taxes based on their livestock.
• Artisans and shopkeepers: They performed public duties and paid taxes on their earnings, except for those who made weapons of war and received wages from the community.
• Military: They were second in number to farmers and enjoyed significant freedom and a pleasant lifestyle, dedicated solely to military activities, with their expenses covered by the king.
• Overseers: They supervised activities in the country and cities, reporting to the king or local authorities.
• Councillors and Assessors: The smallest class in number but highly respected due to the character and wisdom of its members. It included the king's advisers, state treasurers, dispute settlers, army generals, and chief magistrates.

Kautilya (Chanakya) and the Arthashastra

• The Arthashastra, an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, public administration, economic policy, and military strategy, was written in Sanskrit. Traditionally attributed to Chanakya (Kautilya), a scholar at Takshashila and the mentor of Emperor Chandragupta Maurya, the work is considered a significant source of information about the Mauryan period. Although it was compiled a few centuries after Maurya's rule, it provides a detailed analysis of the economic and political conditions of the time.
• Divided into 15 sections and 180 subdivisions, the Arthashastra contains around 6,000 verses. Rediscovered in 1904 by R. Shamasastry and published in 1909, the first English translation appeared in 1915. Despite debates over its date and authorship, the Arthashastra is valued for its insights into Mauryan administration and society. The administrative terms used in the text show similarities with those in the Asokan edicts, suggesting the Mauryan rulers were familiar with this work.

King

• Kautilya advocates for a strong, centralized authority where the king wields absolute power, making decisions independently while respecting Brahmanas and consulting ministers. 
• He emphasizes the king's need for wisdom, culture, and self-control, warning against six vices that can lead to a king's downfall: arrogance, lust, anger, greed, pride, and indulgence. While the king should live comfortably, he must avoid excessive pleasures.

Ideals of Kingship

• The king's welfare is tied to the happiness of his subjects.
• He should be a 'Chakravarti,' conquering various realms.
• Protection from external threats and internal peace is essential.
• Soldiers should be motivated by a sense of 'holy war.'

Internal Strife

• Quarrels among subjects can be resolved by winning over leaders or eliminating the cause.
• Conflicts within the royal family are more damaging and require careful management.

Training of a Future King

• Self-discipline is vital, both inborn and acquired.
• A future king should learn from authoritative teachers and associate with learned elders.
• A wise and disciplined king, focused on just governance, will rule without opposition.

About the Ministers

• Kautilya stresses the importance of ministers in governance, comparing a king without them to a one-wheeled chariot.
• Ministers should be wise and intelligent but not manipulate the king.
• They must work as a team, hold private meetings, and keep secrets to maintain stability.

Provincial Administration

• Kautilya's writings reveal a structured provincial administration, with provinces often governed by royal family members.
• Smaller provinces, such as Saurashtra and Kambhoj, were administered by officers known as 'Rashtriyas.'
• Each province was divided into districts, which were further sub-divided into villages.
• The chief administrator of a district was called the 'Sthanik,' while the village headman was known as the 'Gopa.'

Civic Administration

• Civic administration in major cities and the capital, Pataliputra, was highly efficient.
• Pataliputra was divided into four sectors, each overseen by an officer called the 'Sthanik.'
• Junior officers, known as 'Gopas,' assisted the Sthanik by looking after the welfare of 10 to 40 families.
• The entire city was managed by another officer called the 'Nagrika.'
• A system of regular census was also in place to keep track of the population.

Spy Organisation

• Kautilya advises the king to maintain an extensive network of spies to gather detailed information about events and activities throughout the kingdom.
• Spies should monitor officials and ensure peace within the land.
• Women spies were considered more effective than men and should be particularly recruited.
• Additionally, agents should be sent to neighboring countries to gather politically significant information.

Maintenance of Law and Order

• A stable atmosphere is crucial for a thriving economy, necessitating strict law and order enforcement.
• The Arthashastra outlines various fines and punishments to support law enforcement, a practice known as Dandaniti.

Seven Ways to Deal with Neighboring Countries

• Sama (Appeasement, non-aggression pact)
• Dana (Gift, bribery)
• Bheda (Divide, split, separating opposition)
• Daṇḍa (Strength, punishment)
• Maya (Illusion, deceit)
• Upekṣa (Ignoring the enemy)
• Indrajala (Faking military strength)

Shipping

• Kautilya provides insight into shipping under the Mauryan Empire.
• Ports were overseen by officers who monitored ships and ferries.
• Tolls were imposed on traders, passengers, and fishermen.
• Most ships and boats were owned by the kings, indicating state control over maritime activities.

Economic Condition

• Kautilya describes the central government's management of various departments overseeing social and economic activities, especially near the capital.
• Poverty was seen as a primary cause of rebellions, so ensuring a steady supply of food and money was crucial to maintain order.
• The chief sources of income included land revenue from villages and taxes on goods sold in cities.
• The state controlled economic activities, bringing new land under cultivation with the help of peasants and laborers.
• Taxes from newly settled peasants varied from one-fourth to one-sixth of the produce.
• In emergencies, peasants were required to produce extra crops.
• Tolls were also collected on goods brought to towns for sale, and the state had a monopoly over mining, liquor sales, and arms manufacturing.
• Through a well-organized administrative system and sound financial practices, Chandragupta Maurya managed to sustain a large army and maintain control over the empire.

Comments on Vices

• Kautilya emphasizes the dangers of vices, attributing them to ignorance and indiscipline.
• He suggests that unlearned individuals are unaware of the harmful consequences of their vices.
• While gambling is particularly dangerous in cases of shared power, the most serious vice is addiction to alcohol.
• Other vices, in order of severity, include lust for women, gambling, and hunting.

Bindusara (298 BCE - 272 BCE)

• Bindusara was the son of Chandragupta Maurya, the first Mauryan emperor, and his queen Durdhara. According to the Rajavalikatha, a Jain text, Bindusara was originally called Simhasena. At the young age of 22, he inherited a vast empire that included present-day Northern, Central, and Eastern India, along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan.
• Unlike his father Chandragupta and his son Ashoka, Bindusara's life is not as well-documented. During his reign, Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister. The Tibetan scholar Taranatha noted that Chanakya helped Bindusara subdue the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms, establishing him as the absolute ruler of the territory between the eastern and western oceans.
• Bindusara expanded the empire southward into the Deccan Plateau, reaching as far as present-day Karnataka. He brought sixteen states under Mauryan control, nearly conquering the entire Indian peninsula. However, he did not invade the friendly Tamil regions of Pandya, Chera, Chola, and Satyaputra. The only significant kingdom not included in his empire was Kalinga (modern Odisha), which was later conquered by his son Ashoka.
• The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar from Sangam literature described how the Maurya army invaded the Deccan Plateau. Bindusara had a Greek ambassador at his court named Deimachus Strabo, and he maintained good relations with the Hellenic world, receiving ambassadors from the Seleucid Empire and Egypt. He was known for his wide-ranging interests, even requesting Antiochus I of the Seleucid Empire to send him sweet wine, dried figs, and a sophist. Antiochus agreed to send the figs and wine but declined to send a sophist, as it was not lawful to sell one in Greece.
• Unlike his father, who later converted to Jainism, Bindusara adhered to the Ajivika sect, with his guru Pingalavatsa (also known as Janasana) being a Brahmin of this sect. During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted twice. The first revolt was due to the maladministration of Suseema, Bindusara's eldest son. The cause of the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara was unable to suppress it during his lifetime. It was quelled by Ashoka after Bindusara's death.

Bindusara passed away in 272 BCE, and his son Ashoka the Great succeeded him.

Ashoka (272-232 BCE)

Ashoka Maurya was a significant Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty, ruling over nearly the entire Indian subcontinent, with Pataliputra as the capital of his vast empire.

Early Life and Accession

• Ashoka, whose name means "without sorrow," was born to Bindusara and his queen. The story goes that when Bindusara's wife gave birth to Ashoka, she exclaimed, "I am now without sorrow," leading to his name.
• When Bindusara died in 272 BCE, a fierce battle for succession ensued. According to the Dipavansa and Mahavansa texts, Ashoka killed 99 of his brothers to secure the throne, sparing only one, Vitashoka or Tissa. He gained power with the help of Minister Radhagupta.
• Initially, Ashoka was depicted as bad-tempered and cruel, even establishing a torture chamber known as Ashoka's Hell. However, his reign would soon take a different turn.

Expansion of the Empire

• After ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded the empire aggressively over the next eight years, extending from present-day Assam in the east to Iran in the west, and from the Pamir Knot in the north to the southern peninsula, excluding Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• Ashoka was ambitious and reasserted the Empire’s dominance in southern and western India. His most significant achievement during this period was the conquest of Kalinga.

Kalinga War

The Kalinga War was a pivotal moment in Ashoka's reign, fought between him and the ruler of Kalinga, a feudal republic located along the present-day Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh coast. This war was the only major conflict he engaged in after becoming emperor.

Causes of the Kalinga War

• The primary reasons for invading Kalinga were political and economic. Since the time of Ashoka’s father, King Bindusara, the Mauryan Empire had pursued a policy of territorial expansion. Kalinga, once under Magadha control during the Nanda rule, had regained its independence with the rise of the Mauryas. This loss was seen as a significant setback for Magadha and a blow to Mauryan prestige.
• Kalinga became a staunch enemy of Magadha, allying with the Chola and Pandya kingdoms against it. Additionally, Kalinga's military strength and its prosperity from trade with regions like Malay, Java, and Ceylon made it a threat to Mauryan security, prompting Ashoka’s invasion.

Aftermath of the Kalinga War

• The aftermath of the Kalinga War is documented in the Edicts of Ashoka. The war profoundly impacted Ashoka, leading him to dedicate the rest of his life to the principles of Ahimsa (non-violence) and Dharma-Vijaya (victory through Dharma).
• Following the conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka ceased military expansions and guided the empire through over 40 years of peace, harmony, and prosperity.
• Rock Edict No. 13 (Dhauli/Tosali) records Ashoka's remorse after the war: “Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Priyadarsi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed, and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dharma, a love for the Dharma and for instruction in Dharma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.”
• About 2.5 years after the Kalinga war, Ashoka became a devoted supporter of Buddhism. Influenced by the teachings of Buddhism, he renounced conquest by war (Bherighosa) in favor of conquest by Dharma (Dhammaghosha). Instead of expressing his remorse in Kalinga, he issued separate Rock Edicts, emphasizing good governance and the need for ethical administration.
• His transformation was attributed to Nigrodha, a young Buddhist monk, who was said to have been converted to Buddhism by Upagupta.

Concept of Ashoka’s Dhamma

• The term "Dhamma" is derived from the Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word "Dharma." Scholars have struggled to find an exact English equivalent for Dhamma, with attempts like "piety," "moral life," and "righteousness." However, Dhamma was used in a specific context that makes direct translation challenging.
• To understand Ashoka's concept of Dhamma, it is essential to read his edicts, which aimed to explain the principles of Dhamma to the people across his empire. Dhamma was not a specific religious belief or arbitrary royal policy but an ethic of social conduct that synthesized various social norms prevalent at the time.
• The need for Dhamma arose from the intellectual ferment of around 600 B.C., characterized by rivalry among various sects such as the Charvaks, Jains, Buddhists, and Ajivikas. This intellectual liveliness was reflected in the interests of the Mauryan rulers, with claims that Chandragupta supported Jainism and Bindusara favored the Ajivikas.
• Ashoka's empire was diverse, inhabited by people of varying cultures and levels of development. The north was influenced by the Hellenized culture of Afghanistan and Iran, while the south was on the brink of a flourishing Tamil culture. In such a diverse empire, Asoka aimed to create a mindset among his subjects where social behavior was prioritized.
• The ethics of Dhamma were designed to foster a sense of unity among the people, crucial for a centralized monarchy. The Mauryan Society, with its heterogeneous elements and conflicting economic, social, and religious forces, needed a binding factor to ensure stability and security. Asoka believed that Dhamma could serve this practical purpose.

Interpretations of Dhamma

• Scholarly interpretations of Ashoka's policy of Dhamma have varied. Some argue that Ashoka was a staunch Buddhist and equate Dhamma with Buddhism. Others suggest that the original Buddhist thought was what Ashoka preached as Dhamma, with later theological additions to Buddhism.
• Buddhist chronicles often portray the Kalinga war as a turning point for Ashoka, leading him to embrace Buddhism out of remorse for the war's devastation. These chronicles credit him with the propagation of Buddhism both in India and abroad.
• Historians have debated the outcomes of Ashoka's propagation of Dhamma. Some believe that his ban on sacrifices and favoritism towards Buddhism triggered a Brahmanical backlash, contributing to the decline of the Mauryan empire. Others contend that his emphasis on non-violence weakened the military strength of the empire, leading to its collapse after his death.
• Ashoka's Dhamma reflects his essential humanity and addressed the sociopolitical needs of his time. It was not anti-Brahmanical, as respect for Brahmans and Sramanas was integral to Dhamma. His focus on non-violence did not overlook the state's requirements, as he warned forest tribes of the potential use of force if they continued to cause disturbances.
• By the time Ashoka ceased military campaigns, the entire Indian subcontinent was under his control, and he had established friendly relations with the Cholas and Pandyas in the south. Sri Lanka was also an admiring ally. Ashoka's decision to stop warring came when his empire had reached its natural boundaries.
• A plea for tolerance was a wise approach in a society that was ethnically diverse, religiously varied, and class-divided. Ashoka's empire comprised diverse groups, including farmers, pastoral nomads, hunter-gatherers, Greeks, Kambojas, Bhojas, and numerous other groups with distinct traditions. In such a context, a call for tolerance was necessary.
• Ashoka sought to transcend narrow cultural traditions through a broad set of ethical principles, promoting unity and stability within his diverse empire.

Ashoka's Moral Code (Dhamma) as Formulated in Rock Edicts

• Major Rock Edict I prohibits animal sacrifice and designates holidays for festive gatherings.
• Major Rock Edict II pertains to social welfare measures, including medical treatment for humans and animals, road construction, well digging, and tree planting.
• Major Rock Edict III emphasizes the virtue of generosity towards Brahmans and Sramanas, as well as the importance of respecting one's parents.
• Major Rock Edict IV highlights the positive impact of Dhamma policy in curbing immorality, violence, and disrespect towards Sramanas and Brahmans, significantly reducing animal killings.
• Major Rock Edict V marks the first mention of Dhamma-mahamatta, appointed in the twelfth year of Ashoka's reign to oversee the interests of all sects and religions and promote Dhamma.
• Major Rock Edict VI instructs Dhamma-mahamattas to report directly to the king and emphasizes efficient administration and smooth business transactions.
• Major Rock Edict VII calls for tolerance among all sects, addressing intense tensions, possibly open antagonism, among different sects.
• Major Rock Edict VIII announces the emperor's Dhammayatras (tours), replacing earlier hunting expeditions, allowing the emperor to interact with various segments of the population.
• Major Rock Edict IX criticizes ceremonies performed at birth, illness, marriage, and before journeys, advocating for Dhamma practice over ceremonial observances.
• Major Rock Edict X denounces fame and glory, reaffirming the merits of adhering to Dhamma policy.
• Major Rock Edict XI further explains Dhamma policy, stressing respect for elders, abstaining from animal killings, and generosity towards friends.
• Major Rock Edict XII reiterates the plea for sect tolerance, reflecting the king's concern over sect conflicts and advocating for harmony.
• Major Rock Edict XIII is crucial for understanding Ashoka's Dhamma policy, advocating for conquest by Dhamma rather than war, emphasizing the adaptation of Dhamma by countries rather than territorial control.
• Major Rock Edict XIV records Ashoka's statement about the vastness of his dominions and the abundance of written material, indicating a restraint in further writings.

Success of Dhamma

• Ashoka claimed that his missions to various places, including Ceylon and different Western countries, were successful. However, it is challenging to accept this assertion due to a lack of authentic evidence supporting the success of these missions.
• Ashoka's Dhamma policy did not achieve its intended goals, as social tensions persisted. Taxila, which had previously revolted during his father's reign, experienced renewed rebellion due to ministerial oppression.
• Over time, the power of Dhammamahamattas to interfere in people's lives increased, leading to resentment against these officials.
• None of Ashoka's successors continued the propagation of Dhamma, indicating that his policy did not leave a lasting impact. Following the retirement of Ashoka in 232 BCE, many vassals declared their independence.
• Ashoka's Dhamma did not survive him; thus, it can be considered a failure. He was not establishing a new religion but rather emphasizing the importance of ethical and moral principles within society.
• His efforts to consolidate the empire through Dhamma proved fruitful. The Kandhar inscription attests to the success of his policy, with hunters and fishermen abandoning animal killing in favor of settled agricultural life.

Was Ashoka a Complete Pacifist?

• There are reasons to believe that Ashoka may not have been as pacifistic or unmilitaristic as previously thought. Buddhist literature tends to exaggerate Ashoka's pacifism.
• Various inscriptions from Ashoka's reign, along with some Hindu texts, suggest that the Mauryan Empire maintained a robust military during his time. This military was even used to suppress uprisings among tribal societies and other groups.
• Ashoka is known to have appointed a class of officers called rajukas, who had the authority to both reward and punish people as necessary.
• While Ashoka is traditionally believed to have abolished judicial torture, this is not explicitly stated in his edicts. He maintained the death penalty and allowed a stay of execution for three days, giving condemned individuals time to reflect on the next world.
• Overall, while Ashoka is often associated with pacifism and non-violence, evidence suggests that he also upheld the use of force and maintained a strong military presence during his reign.

Edicts of Ashoka

• The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka, as well as boulders and cave walls, made by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire during his reign. These inscriptions are spread across modern-day Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan, representing the first tangible evidence of Buddhism.
• The edicts primarily focus on social and moral principles rather than specific religious practices or the philosophical aspects of Buddhism. They also highlight Ashoka's social and animal welfare programs. The rock and pillar edicts of Ashoka provide evidence of the wide expansion of Buddhism through his sponsorship.

Historical Context

• The edicts suggest that Buddhist proselytism during Ashoka's time reached as far as the Mediterranean. Many Buddhist monuments were constructed, and Ashoka mentions Greek rulers from Bactria to Greece and North Africa, indicating his awareness of the political landscape.
• The inscriptions in eastern India were written in the Magadhi language using the Brahmi script, while in western India, a language closer to Sanskrit was used, often with the Kharoshthi script. Some edicts were in Greek, and one was bilingual in Greek and Aramaic.
• British archaeologist James Prinsep decoded these edicts in 1837.
• Ashoka refers to himself as "Beloved of the Gods" (Devanampiyadasi) in these inscriptions. This identification was confirmed by a Minor Rock Edict discovered in 1915.
• Another edict found in Datia district, Madhya Pradesh, also mentions "Ashoka" alongside "Devanampiyadasi."

Types of Edicts

The Edicts are divided into:

1. Pillar Edicts: These include major and minor edicts inscribed on pillars.
2. Major Rock Edicts: There are 14 edicts (numbered 1st to 14th) and two separate ones found in Odisha.
3. Minor Rock Inscriptions: This includes Minor Rock Edicts, the Queen's Edict, Barabar Caves inscriptions, and the Kandahar bilingual inscription.

Pillar Edicts (Set of 7)

• Pillar Edict I: Ashoka's principle of protection to people.
• Pillar Edict II: Defines dhamma as a minimum of sins, many virtues, compassion, liberality, truthfulness, and purity.
• Pillar Edict III: Abolishes sins of harshness, cruelty, anger, pride, etc.
• Pillar Edict IV: Deals with the duties of Rajuka, an officer.
• Pillar Edict V: Lists animals and birds that should not be killed on certain days and others that should not be killed at all times. Describes the release of 25 prisoners by Ashoka.
• Pillar Edict VI: Dhamma Policy.
• Pillar Edict VII: Works done by Ashoka for Dhamma Policy. He states that all sects desire both self-control and purity of mind.

Purpose of Pillar Edicts

• The pillars were placed at Buddhist monasteries, important sites from the life of the Buddha, and places of pilgrimage. Some inscriptions were addressed to monks and nuns, while others commemorated visits by Ashoka.
• Persian artists may have influenced Ashoka's pillars, but the pillar was also an established Indian art form, symbolizing the axis mundi in both Buddhism and Hinduism.
• The pillars and edicts represent the first physical evidence of the Buddhist faith. The inscriptions assert Ashoka's commitment to Buddhism and his desire to spread dharma throughout his kingdom. The edicts focus on informing people about his reforms and encouraging them to live a moral life, emphasizing Ashoka's administrative role and tolerance as a leader.

Pillar (Stambha)

• The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns scattered throughout northern India, erected or inscribed with edicts by King Ashoka during the 3rd century BC. Originally, there were many pillars, but only nineteen survive with inscriptions, and only six have animal capitals.
• Averaging between 40 to 50 feet in height and weighing up to 50 tons each, the pillars were transported through rivers, sometimes hundreds of miles, to their locations. The pillars are generally polished.
• Columns were carved from two types of stone: spotted red and white sandstone from Mathura, and buff-colored fine-grained hard sandstone from Chunar near Varanasi. The uniformity of style in the pillar capitals suggests they were sculpted by craftsmen from the same region.
• The pillars have four components in two pieces: the shaft and the capital, which includes the bell (lower part of the capital) and the abacus (upper part of the capital). The lower parts of the capitals are shaped like a gently arched bell formed from lotus petals.
• An abacus is a flat slab forming the uppermost member of the capital, providing a large supporting surface. The crowning animals are masterpieces of Mauryan art, shown either seated or standing, chiselled as a single piece with the abaci.
• The six surviving animal sculptures from Ashoka's pillars form the first significant group of Indian stone sculpture, possibly derived from an existing tradition of wooden columns topped by animal sculptures in copper. Some stone pillars may predate Ashoka's reign.
• There has been discussion about the influence from Achaemenid Persia, where column capitals at Persepolis show similarities. The "cold, hieratic style" of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka reflects Achaemenid and Sargonid influence.
• Five of Ashoka's pillars, along with others, possibly marked the ancient Royal highway from Pataliputra to the Nepal valley. Several pillars were relocated by later Mughal Empire rulers, with animal capitals being removed.

List of Pillars (With or Without Inscription)

• Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh: Four lions, Pillar Inscription, Schism Edict.
• Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh: Four lions, Schism Edict.
• Rampurva, Bihar: Two columns: (a) bull, Pillar Edicts I, II, III, IV, V, VI; (b) single lion with no edicts.
• Vaishali, Bihar: Single lion, with no inscription.
• Sankissa, Uttar Pradesh: Elephant capital only.
• Lauriya-Nandangarh, Bihar: Single lion, Pillar Edicts I, II, III, IV, V, VI.
• Lauriya-Araraj, Bihar: Pillar Edicts I, II, III, IV, V, VI.
• Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh: Pillar Edicts I-VI, Queen's Edict, Schism Edict.
• Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh: Details not specified.

Disintegration of the Maurya Empire

• By the end of his reign, Asoka's hold over the empire weakened, leading to its decline. After Asoka's death in 232 B.C., the Maurya Empire quickly fragmented. Evidence regarding the later Maurya period is scarce. The Puranas, along with Buddhist and Jaina texts, offer some information, but they often disagree. However, all sources agree that the dynasty lasted 137 years.
• Following Asoka's death, the empire was divided into western and eastern halves. The western part, including Gandhara and Kashmir, was governed by Kunala, one of Asoka's sons, and later by Samprati, who was considered a grandson of Asoka and a supporter of Jainism. This region faced threats from the Bactrian Greeks in the northwest and from the Andhras or Satavahanas in the south.
• The eastern part, with its capital at Pataliputra, was ruled by Dasaratha, likely a grandson of Asoka. Dasaratha is mentioned in the Matsya Purana and known from inscriptions in the Nagarjuni Hills. According to the Puranas, he reigned for eight years, the same duration as Kunala in the west. After their deaths, Samprati may have united the empire again by reclaiming the throne at Pataliputra around 223 B.C.
• Despite this reunification, the empire was already in decline. Following Samprati were Salisuka, described in the Gargi Samhita as a quarrelsome king, and successors Devavarman, Satamdhanus, and Brihadratha. Brihadratha was eventually overthrown by his commander, Pushyamitra, who founded the Sunga dynasty.

Important Causes of the Fall of the Maurya Empire

The Magadhan empire, established through successive wars and culminating in the conquest of Kalinga, began to disintegrate after Ashoka's departure in 232 BC. Several factors contributed to the decline and fall of the Maurya empire.

Brahmanical Reaction

• Scholars suggest that Ashoka's pro-Buddhist policies and his successors' pro-Jaina stance alienated the Brahmins, leading to Pushyamitra's revolt and the establishment of the Shunga dynasty.
• Brahmanical reaction stemmed from Ashoka's tolerant policy, which, despite respecting the Brahmins, issued edicts in Prakrit instead of Sanskrit. Ashoka's anti-sacrifice stance and appointment of rajukas to enforce uniform civil and criminal law across varnas angered the Brahmins, who advocated for varna discrimination.
• New kingdoms emerging from the Maurya empire, like the Shungas, Kanvas, and Satavahanas, were led by Brahmins who performed Vedic sacrifices rejected by Ashoka.
• Some argue that Brahminical reaction was pivotal in the decline, citing the Divyavadana's account of Pushyamitra's persecution of Buddhists, Ashoka's denunciation of Brahmins, and Pushyamitra's rise to power as evidence.
• However, these points are contested. The Divyavadana's reliability is questioned, and Ashoka's criticism of Brahmins is interpreted differently. Pushyamitra's victory is seen as a reflection of the last Maurya's incompetence rather than Brahminical opposition.
• Furthermore, the presence of a Brahmin as the Mauryan commander-in-chief suggests cooperation between the Mauryas and Brahmins, undermining the idea of a Brahminical backlash against Ashoka's patronage of Buddhism.

Financial Crisis

• The enormous expenses on the army and payments to the bureaucracy led to a financial crisis for the Maurya empire. The Mauryas maintained the largest army and regiment of officers in ancient times.
• Despite various taxes imposed on the people, sustaining this huge superstructure was challenging. Ashoka's large donations to Buddhist monks depleted the royal treasury, and towards the end, the empire resorted to melting gold images to meet expenses.
• However, these factors are considered one-sided and lack archaeological corroboration. Excavations at sites like Hastinapura and Sisupalgarh indicate improvements in material culture.

Oppressive Rule

• Oppressive governance in the provinces significantly contributed to the empire's disintegration. During Bindusara's reign, citizens of Taxila voiced strong complaints against the misrule of corrupt bureaucrats.
• Ashoka was appointed to address these grievances, but similar complaints arose during his rule. The Kalinga edicts reveal Ashoka's concern about provincial oppression, prompting him to instruct mahamatras against unjust treatment of townspeople.
• To counteract tyranny, Ashoka introduced officer rotation in Tosali, Ujjain, and Taxila and undertook a pilgrimage lasting 256 nights, possibly for administrative oversight.
• Despite these efforts, oppression persisted in outlying provinces, and following Ashoka's retirement, Taxila seized the opportunity to break free from imperial control.

Vastness of the Empire

• The Maurya Empire's vastness, extending to the farthest corners of the Indian subcontinent and beyond its natural frontiers, became a source of weakness due to communication challenges.
• Despite an elaborate administrative system established by Chandragupta and Asoka, the highly centralized government relied heavily on the king for major policies. The administration's effectiveness depended on the king's strength.
• A strong king meant a strong center, while a weak king led to a weak center. The later Mauryas experienced this weakness, as a feeble king could not govern the expansive empire.
• Consequently, the Maurya administration collapsed, and the empire began to disintegrate.

New Knowledge in the Outlying Areas

• The expansion of Magadha was initially due to certain material advantages. However, as the knowledge of using these cultural elements spread to central India, the Deccan, and Kalinga, the Gangetic basin, the empire's heart, lost its unique advantage.
• The regular use of iron tools and weapons in peripheral provinces coincided with the decline of the Maurya empire. New kingdoms such as the Shungas, Kanvas, Chetis in Kalinga, and Satavahanas in the Deccan emerged based on the material culture acquired from Magadha.

Neglect of the North-West Frontier and the Great Wall of China

• Ashoka's focus on domestic and foreign missionary activities led to the neglect of safeguarding the north-western frontier passes, which became crucial due to Central Asian tribal movements in the third century BC.
• The Scythians, heavily reliant on horses, posed a significant threat to settled empires in China and India. In contrast, the Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti built the Great Wall around 220 BC to protect against Scythian attacks.
• Ashoka, however, did not take similar precautions. When the Scythians advanced towards India, they prompted the Parthians, Shakas, and Greeks to migrate to the subcontinent.
• The Greeks established a kingdom in north Afghanistan, known as Bactria, and were the first to invade India in 206 BC, followed by a series of invasions that continued until the beginning of the Christian era.

Internal Revolt

• The immediate cause of the empire's partition into eastern and western parts, with Dasaratha ruling the east and Kunala the west, played a crucial role in its downfall.
• Had this division not occurred, the Greek invasions from the north-west could have been repelled, providing the Mauryas with an opportunity to reestablish some level of power.
• The partition also disrupted various services within the empire. As Maurya rule weakened and the empire began to fragment within half a century after Asoka's death, it ultimately faced a fatal blow from an internal revolt.
• This revolt, led by the Maurya army chief General Pushyamitra around 185 B.C. during the reign of King Brihadratha in Magadha, was a military coup d'état.
• Pushyamitra, a Brahmin, assassinated his own master to take control of the kingdom. The Puranas recount that "Pushyamitra the Senapati will rule the kingdom by assassinating his own master." Bana, the author of Harsha-Charita, describes how Pushyamitra invited the king to an army parade, creating an opportunity to kill him with the army's support.
• The Shungas established their rule in Pataliputra and central India, performing Vedic sacrifices to signify the revival of the Brahmanical way of life and reportedly persecuting Buddhists. They were succeeded by the Kanvas, who were also Brahmins.

Ashoka’s Pacifist Policy

• Ashoka’s pacifist policies contributed to the weakening of the empire.
• His emphasis on nonviolence is seen as detrimental to the empire’s military strength.
• However, there is no evidence in Ashokan inscriptions suggesting demobilization of the army, and capital punishment continued.

Most Fundamental Reasons

• The decline of the Mauryan empire cannot be adequately explained by factors like military inactivity, Brahmin resentment, popular uprisings, or economic pressures.
• More fundamental causes are at play. The organization of administration and the conception of the state or nation were crucial in the decline of the Mauryas.
• The Mauryan administration was highly centralized, requiring a king of considerable personal ability. The weakening of central control due to the death of Ashoka and the varying quality of his successors led to a decline in administration.
• The loyalty of officials to the king rather than the state meant that a change of king could demoralize officials and disrupt the bureaucracy.
• The Mauryas lacked a system to ensure the continuity of a well-planned bureaucracy.
• Extreme centralization and the king’s monopoly of power meant a lack of advisory institutions representing public opinion, leading to reliance on espionage.
• The absence of a distinction between the executive and judiciary allowed an incapable king to misuse officers.
• The Mauryan state derived its revenues from taxing various resources, which needed to grow and expand to maintain the administrative apparatus.
• The Mauryas failed to expand revenue potential or reorganize resources, leading to inherent economic weakness.
• This weakness, combined with other factors, resulted in the collapse of the Mauryan Empire.
• Other important factors contributing to decline and lack of national unity include land ownership and economic inequality.
• Frequent land changes and regional disparities in fertility, such as the prosperous Ganges region compared to northern Deccan, posed challenges.
• The Mauryan administration was not fully attuned to existing disparities in economic activity.
• The contrast between sophisticated cities and isolated village communities, along with linguistic variations, further complicated matters.
• The causes of Mauryan decline largely stem from top-heavy administration where authority was concentrated in a few individuals, while national consciousness was absent.