Foundation of Delhi Sultanate: Rule of Iltutmish | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

The rulers of the Delhi Sultanate from 1206 CE to 1290 CE are commonly referred to as the Mamluk Dynasty or Slave Dynasty. However, these rulers did not belong to a single dynasty, nor were they slaves when they took the throne.

During this period, Delhi was actually ruled by three different dynasties:

• Qutbi Dynasty founded by Qutubuddin.
• First Ilbari or Shamsi Dynasty founded by Iltutmish.
• Second Ilbari Dynasty founded by Balban.

All the rulers had been freed from slavery before becoming Sultans. Except for Qutubuddin, the others had gained their freedom long before their rise to power.

Therefore, it is more accurate to refer to them as early Turk sultans or Mamluk sultans of Delhi.

Foundation of Delhi Sultanate

By the time of Muizzuddin Muhammad’s death in 1206, the Turks had expanded their control to: Lakhnauti in Bengal,Ajmer and Ranthambor in Rajasthan,reaching the boundaries of Ujjain in the south, and Multan and Uchch in Sindh.

After his death, the empire remained relatively stable for nearly a century. The period from 1206 to 1290 is considered the formative and challenging phase in the history of the Delhi Sultanate. The Turks faced numerous internal and external difficulties during this time.

• Rajput Rulers: The Rajput rulers of Rajasthan, Bundelkhand, and nearby areas like Bayana and Gwaliyar made efforts to regain their former territories. However, the Rajputs never united to collectively drive the Turks out of India.
• Internal Conflicts Among Nobles: There were power struggles among key generals such as Yalduz(who controlled Ghazni),Qubacha(who controlled Uchh), and Qutbuddin Aibak(the viceroy and overall commander of the army in India).
• Attempts at Independence: Some Turkish rulers, like  Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji and his successors, tried to establish independent control over Lakhnauti and Bihar, separate from Delhi.
• Mongol Threat: The threat from the Mongols began during the rule of Iltutmish.

Qutbuddin Aibak (AD 1206–1210)

Early Life and Career:

• Qutubuddin Aibek, born to Turkish parents and sold into slavery as a child, had a tumultuous early life. His second master was Muhammad Ghori.
• Aibek was initially sold to the Qazi of Nishapur before being bought by Ghori, who recognized his potential. His rise was swift, with his first significant promotion to amir-i-akhur.
• After the second battle of Tarain in 1192 CE, Aibek was given charge of Ghori's Indian territories. He played a crucial role in the Ghorid conquests in India, including saving Ajmer from uprisings and defeating Jayachandra of Kannauj.
• Aibek captured key territories such as Koil (Aligarh),Ranthambhor (1195 CE),Badaun (1197-98 CE),Kanauj (1198-99 CE), and Kalinjar, Mahoba, Khajuraho (1202-03 CE). He also occupied Delhi, making it the capital of the new Turkish Empire.
• Another of Ghori's lieutenants, Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji, rapidly brought Bihar and Bengal under Turkish control. However, Aibek's contributions were deemed greater, leading to his promotion to malik with viceregal powers in 1206 CE.
• After Ghori's death in 1206, Aibek seized the opportunity to assert his authority, marching to Lahore and declaring himself sovereign of the Ghorid Empire on June 25, 1206. He became the first independent Muslim ruler of Northern India and the founder of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Aibek faced challenges from Rajputs and other Indian chiefs, such as Harishchandra, who had expelled the Turks from Badayun and Farukhabad. Aibek re-conquered these territories.
• He also dealt with threats from other Turks, including Tajuddin Yaldauz, who claimed Delhi, and Nasiruddin Qabacha, who sought independence. Aibek moved his capital to Lahore, defeated Yaldauz, and occupied Ghazni, but could not subdue Qabacha, a task later completed by Illtutmish.

Qutubuddin Aibek as Sultan:

• With the death of Muhammad Ghori, Qutubuddin Aibek lost a powerful protector and became entangled in Central Asian politics. The Ghorid Empire fragmented into warring factions.
• Ghiyasuddin Mahmud established rule in Ghur, while Tajuddin Yalduz, another of Ghori's slaves, claimed his master’s Indian territories.
• In Northern India, Aibek faced a troubling internal situation. He was preoccupied with these issues and could not effectively counter the resurgent Rajputs, who were regaining lost power.
• The Chandelas recaptured Kalinjar, the Gahadwalas under Harishchandra reclaimed Farrukhabad and Badaun, and the Pratiharas seemed to have taken Gwalior.
• Aibek had little time to expand Turkish conquests in India and died in 1210 after falling from his horse while playing chaugan(medieval polo).
• Despite his brief reign, Aibek's rule is considered significant as it marked the emergence of the first independent Turkish ruler in India. He was praised by contemporaries for his liberality,beneficence, and gallantry.
• Aibek was known for his bravery, faithfulness, and generosity, earning the nickname "Lakh Baksh". Although his reign was short and fraught with challenges, he managed to maintain control and is remembered for his contributions.
• Historian Abul Fazl lauded Aibek's achievements, stating, "He accomplished great and good things."

Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211-1236 CE)

Rise of Iltutmish:

• After the death of Aibek, the Turkish faction in Lahore supported Aibek's son Aram Shah(though it's debated if he was Aibek's actual son).
• Meanwhile, the nobles in Delhi, led by Ismail, who was in charge of the judicial department, invited Iltutmish to take the throne. At that time, Iltutmish was the governor of Badaun.
• Iltutmish marched towards Delhi and easily defeated Aram Shah, whose rule lasted only about eight months and was largely insignificant.

Early Life and Career of Iltutmish:

• Shamsuddin Iltutmish was born to Turkish parents of the Ilbari tribe in Central Asia. He was handsome and intelligent, and his father loved him dearly. However, his half-brothers became jealous and sold him to a slave-trader when he was still a child.
• After passing through many hands, Iltutmish was eventually purchased by Qutbuddin Aibak. He proved his worth and rose through the ranks by merit, eventually becoming amir-i-shikar(master of the hunt).
• He was later in charge of the fort of Gwalior and then became the governor of the iqtas(provinces) of Gwalior and Baran (Bulandshahr).
• Married to Aibak's daughter, Iltutmish was eventually appointed governor of the iqta of Badaun. His valor in battles against the Khokhars impressed Muhammad Ghori, who advised Aibak to free him from slavery.
• After Aibak's death, the citizens of Delhi believed the Turkish Empire needed a capable ruler. They preferred Iltutmish over the incompetent Aram Shah.
• Sipahsalar Amir Ali gained consent from the citizens and Turkish nobles of Delhi to invite Iltutmish, who then defeated Aram Shah and became the ruler of Delhi in 1211 CE.
• Iltutmish was crucial in maintaining and strengthening the Delhi Sultanate, establishing it as a compact and well-knit state. He is considered the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate.

Difficulties and Achievements of Iltutmish

Rival Turkish Nobles:

• The throne of Delhi was challenging for Iltutmish.
• The death of Aibek caused confusion in the Delhi Sultanate.
• Aram Shah's weak rule sparked rebellious tendencies among Turkish nobles.
• Some Turkish nobles resisted Iltutmish's authority and prepared for rebellion.
• Iltutmish marched from Delhi and defeated the rebels.
• Contemporary author Minhaj Siraj noted Iltutmish's victories over various hostilities.
• Despite his victories, Iltutmish faced opposition from other regional powers.
• Nasiruddin Qubacha declared independence by capturing Lahore and other regions.
• Ali Mardan Khalji stopped sending tribute to Delhi.
• Tajuddin Yaldoz, Sultan of Ghazni, tried to assert dominance over Iltutmish.
• Iltutmish diplomatically accepted Yaldoz's claims but maintained control over his territories.

Defeat of Tajuddin Yaldoz (1215-16 CE):

• Yaldoz claimed overlordship over Iltutmish and requested military assistance.
• Iltutmish marched against Yaldoz to settle scores.
• In 1215-16 CE, Iltutmish defeated Yaldoz at Tarain and imprisoned him.
• Yaldoz was later killed after being sent to Badaun.
• Iltutmish eliminated a major rival and solidified Delhi Sultanate's independence from Ghazni.
• Delhi Sultanate became an independent state, both practically and legally.

Defeat of Nasiruddin Qubacha (1217 CE):

• After Yaldoz's defeat, Nasiruddin Qubacha occupied Lahore again.
• Iltutmish challenged Qubacha with a large army.
• Qubacha retreated towards Multan but was defeated by Iltutmish at Mansura.
• Iltutmish did not pursue Qubacha into Sind due to the political situation in Central Asia.
• Qubacha ruled over Sind independently until his death in 1227 CE.

Mongol Threat on the North-West Frontier (1220-24 CE):

• Iltutmish averted the Mongol threat through diplomacy.
• The Mongols pursued Jalaluddin Mankbarani, the Crown Prince of Khwarazm, seeking refuge in India.
• Iltutmish faced a dilemma in deciding whether to aid Mankbarani or avoid incurring Chengiz Khan's wrath.
• Iltutmish chose to discourage Mankbarani, who eventually left India in 1224 CE.
• The Mongols followed suit, and Chengiz Khan died in 1227.
• Iltutmish preserved his kingdom from Mongol invasion and the political turmoil in Central Asia.
• Iltutmish maintained a policy of non-aggression towards the Mongols, avoiding expansion in the north-west during Chengiz Khan's lifetime.
• Minhaj Siraj noted Iltutmish's expedition against Mankbarani, who ultimately left India.

Re-conquest of Multan and Sind (1227-28 CE):

• After the Mongol threat subsided, Iltutmish launched an offensive against Nasiruddin Qubacha from Lahore and Delhi.
• Multan and Uchh were captured, and Qubacha was besieged in the fort of Bhakkar on the Indus River.
• In a desperate attempt to escape, Qubacha drowned in the Indus River.
• The Sumra ruler of Debal acknowledged Iltutmish's suzerainty.
• Iltutmish occupied Multan and Uchh, solidifying his control over the regions.

Conquest of Bihar and Bengal:

• After Qutubuddin Aibek's death, Bihar and Bengal were lost to the Delhi Sultanate.
• Ali Mardan's death led to Husamuddin Iwaz Khalji assuming power in Bengal.
• Iwaz, a successful ruler, initially acknowledged Iltutmish's authority.
• Three campaigns were needed to subjugate Bengal and re-establish central authority.
• Iltutmish annexed Bihar in 1225 CE, forcing Iwaz to pay an indemnity.
• When Iwaz rebelled again, Iltutmish's son Nasiruddin Mahmud defeated and killed Iwaz.
• Nasiruddin Mahmud's conquest of Lakhnauti in 1226 CE was followed by Iltutmish's final campaign against rebels.
• With the eastern region under control, Iltutmish appointed separate governors for Bengal and Bihar.

War against the Rajputs

• The Rajputs posed a challenge as they attempted to shake off Turkish rule.
• Iltutmish systematically subjugated insurgent Rajputs to secure Turkish dominance.
• Ranthambhor was captured from the Chauhans in 1226 CE.
• Nagor followed in 1227 CE, and Gwalior came under Delhi Sultanate control in 1231 CE.
• Campaigns in Rajputana concluded with the sack of Bhilsa and Ujjain (1234-35 CE).
• The Gangetic valley was pacified, and Turkish rule re-established in Awadh and the Doab.
• Iltutmish attempted to subjugate the khokars in 1235 CE.
• Exhausted from continuous warfare, Iltutmish fell ill and returned to Delhi.
• He passed away in April 1236 CE and was buried in Delhi.

Administration of Iltutmish

Establishment of Turkish Rule in North India:

• Turkish rule in North India was established after the second battle of Tarain (1192 CE), but the existing administrative machinery was not effectively prepared for this change.
• Muhammad Ghori, the founder of this rule, was primarily focused on military campaigns and did not have the time or resources to stabilize his newly founded empire. His initial efforts were insufficient to provide the needed stability, and the administration was largely left in the hands of slave-officers.

Qutubuddin Aibek's Leadership:

• After Ghori's death, Qutubuddin Aibek took charge, but there was little improvement in the administrative situation.
• It was only with the arrival of Iltutmish that the Turkish state began to seriously address administrative challenges.

Iltutmish's Reforms:

• Iltutmish initially took time to establish himself as Sultan, but once he did, he was determined to uphold the authority and dignity of his office.
• He eliminated rivals who challenged his sovereignty and then implemented concrete administrative measures.

Formation of the Turkan-i-Chihalgani:

• Recognizing that he could not govern alone, Iltutmish formed a group of loyal Turkish slave officers known as the Turkan-i-Chihalgani (Forty Turkish Slave Officers).
• This group was instrumental in both military conquests and administrative tasks, acting as a powerful machinery under the Sultan's command.

The Role of the “Forty” Officers:

• The “Forty” officers were Turkish nobles who advised and assisted the Sultan in governance.
• They considered themselves superior to free amirs and sought to exclude non-Turkish individuals from their ranks.
• Despite internal rivalries, they united to maintain their status and influence.

Balancing Power:

• Iltutmish managed to balance the power between the “Forty” and other groups of nobles, but this balance shifted after his death.
• The “Forty” gained significant power post-Iltutmish, influencing the selection of Sultans.

Legacy of Iltutmish:

• Iltutmish received a ‘Letter of Investiture’ from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad in AD 1229, which legitimized his rule and established the Delhi Sultanate as an independent state.
• He made significant contributions to administrative institutions, including the iqtas, army, and currency system.
• Iltutmish introduced the silver ‘Tanka’ and the copper ‘Jittal’ coins and granted iqtas to Turkish officers, securing financial and administrative control over key regions.

Hereditary Sovereignty and Monarchy:

• By earning the respect of the people and establishing the right of his children to succeed him, Iltutmish set the foundation for hereditary sovereignty in Delhi.
• He laid the groundwork for an absolutist monarchy, paving the way for future military imperialism under the Khaljis.
• While Aibak outlined the Delhi Sultanate, Iltutmish is recognized as its first true king.

Estimate of Iltutmish

Iltutmish: Overview of His Reign in the Delhi Sultanate:

• Military Dictatorship: Iltutmish's rule was marked by a concentration of power in his hands, similar to Aibek's military dictatorship, but with more centralized authority.
• Foundation of Absolute Monarchy: He established the groundwork for an absolute monarchy of the Turks in Northern India.
• Central Administration: Iltutmish appointed key officials such as the wazir (prime minister),sadr-i-jahan (head of ecclesiastical affairs), and chief qazi, who were directly accountable to him.
• Control over Nobility: He limited the influence of Turkish nobility in state matters, gradually downgrading or eliminating disobedient nobles from previous regimes.
• Creation of New Elite Class: Iltutmish formed a new ruling elite from his Turkish slave officers, led by the Chalisa, a group of forty powerful military leaders.
• Legal Claim and Succession: He secured a deed of investiture from the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah, which legitimized his rule and ensured the succession of his descendants.
• First Legal Sovereign: Iltutmish became the first legal sovereign of the Indian Turks and the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate, silencing his critics.
• Law and Order: He reinforced law and order, allowed local administrative bodies to function, and administered justice according to Islamic standards.
• Currency and Religion: Iltutmish introduced an Arabic currency and, while being a Sunni Muslim, practiced moderation towards Hindus for political reasons.
• Patronage of Art and Learning: He supported scholars and artists, providing refuge to those fleeing Mongol invasions and enriching the cultural life of the ruling elite.
• Military and Leadership: Iltutmish was a skilled military commander who unified Turkish leadership, protected the kingdom from Mongol invasions, and laid the foundations of the Delhi Sultanate.

Raziya Sultan (AD 1236–40)

Iltutmish and Raziya's Struggle for Power:

• Raziya's Succession: Iltutmish chose Raziya as his successor over his sons, believing none were fit to rule. After Iltutmish's death, his son Ruknuddin Firoz became Sultan with military support but proved to be an ineffective leader. Raziya eventually claimed the throne with the backing of Delhi's people and some military leaders, facing challenges both from within and outside.
• Conflict After Iltutmish: After Iltutmish's death, power struggles emerged between the Sultan and the slave nobles, known as the Forty. This led to the murder of four sultans, with the fifth becoming a puppet under Balban. The nobles were divided into Turkish nobles and Taziqs.
• Turkish Nobles: The Turkish nobles, calling themselves Sultani, formed a group called Turkan-i-Chihalgani. They eliminated rivals, the Taziqs, and attempted to seize power from Iltutmish's weak successors. Rukn-ud-din Firuz, Iltutmish's son, was killed, and his sister Raziya was placed on the throne.
• Raziya's Reign: Raziya faced conflicts with her Turkish nobles as she sought to assert her power. She took diplomatic measures to break the confederacy of her rivals, concentrating power in her hands and appointing loyal nobles to higher positions. She even adopted male attire and abandoned purdah.
• Revolt Against Raziya: The Chalisa, a group of powerful nobles, eventually conspired against Raziya due to her assertiveness. Revolts from governors like Kabir Khan of Lahore and Malik Altunia of Bhatinda led to her imprisonment and the elevation of her brother, Bahram, to the throne.
• Raziya's Downfall: Raziya's greatest challenge was her gender, as Iltutmish initially supported her but later reconsidered, realizing that the people preferred a male ruler. After her brother Rukn-ud-din took the throne without opposition, Raziya found the purdah system hindered her governance. She began dressing as a man to participate more freely in administrative matters.
• Struggle for Power: The conflict between Raziya and the Turkish slave nobles was more about power than gender. The nobles expected Raziya to be a figurehead but rebelled when she tried to exert her authority. After removing Raziya, they placed incompetent rulers like Muizuddin Bahram Shah and Alauddin Masud on the throne, leading to chaos.
• Mongol Invasions: The Mongol invasions further worsened the situation in Hindustan, with the Mongols capturing Lahore and advancing into Punjab.
• Rise of Nasiruddin Mahmud: In 1246 CE, Nasiruddin Mahmud became the ruler, known for his piety and patronage of learning. He appointed Ghiyasuddin Balban, his minister and father-in-law, to manage administration.
• Balban's Ascendancy: After Nasiruddin's death in 1266 CE, Balban ascended the throne with noble support, marking the end of Iltutmish's dynasty.

Contribution of Razia Sultan in Delhi Sultanate

Measures Taken by Raziya Sultan to Strengthen Her Position:

• Dealing with Rebel Nobles: Raziya took steps to address the challenges posed by rebel nobles and aimed to stabilize her authority in the sultanate.
• Justifying Her Claim to the Throne: Raziya asserted her right to the throne by highlighting her father's nomination of her as his successor over his sons, despite societal norms against a woman ruling.
• Diplomatic Strategies: When faced with hostile provincial governors, Raziya opted for diplomacy over military confrontation. She formed secret alliances and spread rumors to create distrust among the rebels, ultimately leading to their withdrawal.
• Distribution of Key Positions: Raziya rewarded her supporters with important positions, reinforcing loyalty and support for her rule.
• Diversity in Appointments: To break the Turkish nobles' monopoly, she appointed non-Turkish individuals to significant roles, including Indian Muslims and an Abyssinian, which raised eyebrows among some.
• Military Campaigns: Raziya also undertook military campaigns against the Rajputs, capturing key territories like Ranthambhor.
• Efficient Governance: She governed with efficiency, held open courts, listened to her subjects, and demonstrated her commitment through personal involvement in military campaigns.
• Cultural and Educational Initiatives: Raziya established educational institutions and promoted the study of various subjects, emphasizing the importance of knowledge and justice.
• Conflict Avoidance with Mongols: Raziya adopted a policy of appeasement towards the Mongols, although she struggled with internal dissent and eventually faced tragic downfall.

Reason for her failure

Razia Sultan's Struggles and Downfall:

• Being a woman was a significant factor in Razia's failure. Minhaj-us-siraj noted that despite her kingly qualities, her gender rendered her virtues useless in the eyes of men.
• Her ascension to sultan was seen as contrary to Islamic tradition.
• Turkish chiefs opposed her rule, viewing it as a humiliation to serve under a woman.
• Razia's case was unprecedented in Islamic history under a monarchical system, ahead of its time.
• Instead of winning over her opponents, Razia's firmness and desire for direct power alienated the Turkish nobles.
• The appointment of Yaqut and other non-Turks to key positions angered the nobility, who realized Razia would not be a puppet.
• She was captured by Tabarhind governor Altunia. Despite marrying him to secure his support, she failed to quell the rebels and ultimately lost her life.
• Razia's tragic end highlighted the increasing power of the Chihalgani Turkish nobles.