Government and Administration under the Delhi Sultanate | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Historical Context and Evolution of the Delhi Sultanate:

• The Delhi Sultanate was shaped by its historical experience as part of the wider Islamic world and evolved based on its needs and circumstances.
• The Turks, being fewer in number than the indigenous population and lacking resources, needed to control the country's resources to govern effectively.

Influence on Administration:

• The administrative machinery under the Delhi Sultanate was influenced by the Abbasid, Ghaznavid, and Seljukid systems of administration.
• It was also shaped by the Iranian system of administration and local Indian traditions.
• Both West Asia (including Iran) and India had a tradition of monarchical rule supported by a council of ministers.
• Some government departments and officers were old institutions under new names, showing continuity with the past.

New Institutions and Centralization:

• Despite the influences, the Turks developed new institutions and concepts that centralized power and authority in ways not previously seen in India.
• This evolution marked a significant change in the administrative landscape of the region.

The nature of Delhi sultanate state

Historians have given different interpretations for explaining the nature of the Delhi Sultanate.

Theocratic state

Historians' Views on the Nature of the Delhi Sultanate

Supporters of Islamic State ViewAarti Tripathi, Ishwari Prasad, A.L. Shrivastava:

• Shariyat-based rule: Emphasis on Islamic law as the foundation of governance.
• Islam as state religion: Islam was promoted as the official religion of the state.
• Influence of Ulemas: Religious scholars played a significant role in the political system.
• Allegiance to Caliph: Sultans pledged loyalty to the Caliph, reinforcing Islamic authority.
• Jaziya on non-Muslims: Tax imposed on non-Muslims as a sign of their subordinate status.
• Destruction of temples: Temples were destroyed, reflecting religious intolerance.
• Millets and Zimmis: Muslims were privileged (Millets), while non-Muslims had a subordinate status (Zimmis).

Critics of Islamic State ViewMd. Habib, I.H. Qureshi:

• Shariyat was not the core basis of rule.
• Ulemas were not a dominant element in the political system.

Most Accepted ViewSatish Chandra:

• Theoretical Islamic State: The Sultanate was theoretically an Islamic state.
• Political over Religious: Rule was based on political considerations rather than religious ones.
• Politico-Military Wars: Wars were not purely religious but had political and military objectives.
• Non-Missionary Sultans: Sultans, though Muslim, did not act as religious missionaries.
• Limited Ulema Influence: Ulemas were not always influential in the political sphere.
• Un-Islamic Practices: Customs like Shijda and Pabos were practiced.
• No Conversion Policy: No systematic conversion of Hindus; they enjoyed freedom.
• Political Temple Destruction: Destruction of temples was often politically motivated.
• Sovereign Sultans: Sultans were sovereign, with a formal link to the Caliph.

Barani's ObservationDuniyadari:

• Delhi Sultanate was categorized as Duniyadari, emphasizing the importance of worldly needs.

Shariah and Zawabit:

• Sultans recognized shariah supremacy but also framed secular regulations(zawabit) to address practical needs.

Theocracy vs. Expediency:

• The Turkish State was seen as a theocracy, but in practice, it was shaped by expediency and necessity.

Barani's DistinctionSecular and Religious:

• Barani distinguished between jahandari(secular) and dindari(religious) aspects, acknowledging the necessity of secular features.

Legal and State Needs:

• When legalistic positions conflicted with state needs, such as in the distribution of booty, the Sultan prioritized state needs over strict adherence to Islamic law.

War state

War and Military Preparedness in Medieval Times:

• War was a common occurrence necessary for the survival and expansion of states.
• Military preparation was always a priority due to the constant threat of conflict.
• During medieval times, states were primarily military and war-oriented because the era was marked by frequent conflicts.
• Military strength and the ability to wage war were crucial for sustaining and surviving as a state in this period.

Military state

Factors of Strength and Stability of the Delhi Sultanate:

• Military Dominance: The Delhi Sultanate relied heavily on military power to maintain control, as there was no strong public support or popular base.
• Separate Military Departments: The administration had distinct military departments to manage and organize military affairs effectively.
• Military-Oriented Policies: Policies, such as Alauddin Khalji's market control, were designed with military needs in mind, ensuring the army was well-supplied and funded.
• Lack of Primogeniture: The absence of a system where the eldest son inherits power meant that military strength often determined succession, making the military crucial in deciding who would rule.

Conquest state

• The Sultanate was a structured form of foreign takeover.
• This foreign conquest was carried out by the Turks under the leadership of Muhammad Ghori.
• According to historian Satish Chandra, while the 13th century may be seen as a period of foreign conquest, by the 14th century, the rulers had become indigenous in terms of political, economic, social, and cultural aspects.

Despotic state

Rule of Sultanate:

• Marked by despotism, where the Sultan's will was supreme.
• Checks on despotism came from religion,nobility, and slaves.
• According to Barani, despotism was un-Islamic, and religion served as a check on it.
• Some Sultans, like Jalaluddin Khalji,Ghiasuddin Tughluq, and Firuz Shah Tughluq, exhibited elements of benevolent despotism.

Centralised state

Historians' Views on the State System:

• Historians such as Md. Habib and Ishwari Prasad have observed that the state system during this period was characterized by centralized systems.
• The central authority implemented political-administrative units under Muqtis, who were directly controlled by the Sultan.
• The Iqta system served as a crucial tool for centralization.
• However, there were instances of decentralization during certain regimes, particularly under weaker Sultans like Firuz Shah Tughluq.

Monarchical state

Monarch as Head of State and Government:

• The monarch held a powerful and central role as the head of state and government.
• All other positions and offices were subservient to the king's authority.
• The king served as the head of justice,commander-in-chief, and supreme legislator.

Patrimonial state

• Max Weber, a German sociologist, described the Sultanate state as household-dominated, patrimonial, and bureaucratic.
• According to Weber, rulers relied on a small group of trained and loyal officials for specialized functions.
• The system was essentially rule by a household.

Confederate kind of union/ confederacy

Background of the Sultanate State:

• The character of the Sultanate state evolved under the rule of Bahlol Lodi.
• It was based on the Afghan concept of a political system where power was shared among Afghan chiefs, known as shared sovereignty.

Interpretations of the Sultanate State:

• There were various interpretations of the nature of the Sultanate state, each with its own limitations.
• It is challenging to categorize the state into a single interpretation.

Harman Kulke's Perspective:

• According to historian Harman Kulke:
• The Delhi Sultanate initially functioned as a conquest state.
• After the reign of Alauddin Khalji, there was a significant effort to centralize administration.
• However, the Delhi Sultanate remained structurally weak and essentially operated as a patrimonial system.

Central administration

Central Administrative Machinery of the Sultanate:

• The central administration of the Sultanate was led by the Sultan, who was at the top of the hierarchy.
• Various nobles controlled different offices, helping the Sultan manage the administration.

The Sultan

Balban's Reign and the Concept of Sovereignty:

• Balban established civil and political regulations for the welfare of the public.
• Khutba and sikka were recognized as key symbols of sovereignty.
• Khutba: A formal sermon after Friday prayers where the Sultan's name was mentioned as the community's leader.
• Sikka: Coinage was the ruler's right, with the Sultan's name inscribed on the coins.

Barani noted that Balban emphasized the Sultan's role as the "shadow of God" (zill al Allah) on earth.

• Balban also valued courtly splendor, decorum, and etiquette.
• He believed in severe punishments, even for nobles, to maintain order.

Many nobles during Balban's time felt they had an equal right to rule.

The Wizarat (Finance) : the head of the diwan-i wizarat

Key Figures in Central Administration:

• The wizarat, led by a chief official, played a crucial role in the central administration. While he was one of four important departmental heads, he had general supervisory authority over the others.
• The wizarat was responsible for:
• Organizing revenue collection.
• Controlling expenditure.
• Keeping accounts.
• Disbursing salaries.
• Allotting revenue assignments (iqta) at the Sultan's order.
• Assisting officials included the mushif-i mumalik(accountant-general) and mustaufi-i mumalik(auditor-general).
• During Alauddin Khalji's reign, the diwan-i mustakhraj was responsible for collecting arrears of revenue.
• Diwan-i Arz:
• Military department headed by ariz-i mumalik.
• Responsible for military affairs.
• Inspected troops maintained by iqta-holders.
• Supervised commissariat duties(supply and transport) of the Sultan's army.
• Alauddin Khalji introduced measures for recruitment and quality control in the army:
• Kept a descriptive roll(huliya) of every soldier.
• Branded horses (dagh) to prevent poor-quality horses from being brought by amirs or iqta-holders to the muster.
• Branding of horses was strictly maintained until the reign of Muhammad Tughluq.
• The army included troops maintained by nobles and the Sultan's standing army (hashm-i-qalb).
• In the 13th century, royal cavalry was paid in cash salary or assigned revenue from small villages near Delhi, known as small iqta.
• Iltutmish had about three thousand cavalry receiving such assignments.
• Balban attempted to eliminate these assignments, causing dissatisfaction.
• Alauddin Khalji successfully paid his soldiers in cash, with troopers receiving 238 tanka and additional horses earning 78 tanka more.
• Feroz Tughluq reversed this practice, paying royal soldiers with itlaq, a paper draft for claiming salary from the Sultan’s revenue officers of the khalisa(Crown or reserve land).

Other Departments

Diwan-i Insha:

• Managed state correspondence.
• Led by Dahir-i Mumalik.
• Handled communication between the Sultan and other rulers, as well as between the Sultan and provincial governments.
• Issued farmans(decrees) and received letters from subordinate officials.

Barid-i Mumalik:

• Head of the state news agency.
• Responsible for keeping the Sultan informed about events within the Sultanate.
• Local barids(news reporters) sent regular newsletters to the central office.
• Reported on matters such as wars, rebellions, local affairs, finances, and agriculture.
• Spies or barids were appointed to different parts of the empire to keep the Sultan updated on developments.
• This system was used by Balban and Alauddin Khalji to control and demoralize the nobles.
• Another group of reporters, known as munhiyan, also existed.

Diwan-i Risalat:

• Led by the Sadr-us Sudur, the highest religious officer.
• Managed ecclesiastical affairs and appointed qazis(judges).
• Approved grants like waqf(endowments) for religious and educational institutions, as well as wazifa and idrar for the learned and the poor.

Judiciary:

• Headed by the Sultan, who was the final court of appeal in civil and criminal matters.
• Next in line was the Qazi-ul Mumalik(or Qazi-ul Quzzat), the chief judge of the Sultanate.
• Often, the positions of Sadr-us Sudur and Qazi-ul Mumalik were held by the same person.
• The chief qazi oversaw the legal system and heard appeals from lower courts.
• Muhatsibs(public censors) assisted the judicial department by ensuring no public infringement of Islamic tenets.

Court and the Royal Household

Wakil-i-dar:

• Most important officer of the royal household.
• Controlled the entire royal household.
• Supervised payments to the sovereign’s personal staff, including the royal kitchen and stables.
• Responsible for the education of princes.
• Courtiers, princes, and queens approached him for favors.
• Position held by nobles of high rank.

Amir Hajib:

• Also known as barbek.
• Master of ceremonies at court.
• Marshalled nobles according to rank.
• All petitions to the Sultan presented through him or his subordinates.
• Sometimes held by princes of blood.

Minor officials included heads of the hunt and officers in charge of royal parties.

Karkhana or royal stores:

• Met the needs of the royal household.
• Had two types: manufacturies and storehouses.
• Royal library (kitabikhana) was also considered a karkhana.
• Responsible for storing and manufacturing articles like food, clothes, and furniture.

Public Works department or diwan-i-amirat:

• Gained importance during Alauddin Khalji’s time.
• Under Firuz Tughlaq, a separate department was set up for public works.
• Malik Ghazi was in charge of this department.
• Firuz Tughlaq repaired old buildings, dug canals, and built new towns.

Alauddin Khalji and Firuz Tughlaq had large numbers of slaves in their royal households.

Alauddin Khalji owned 50,000 slaves, while Firuz Tughlaq is reputed to have had 1.80.000 slaves.

• Firuz Tughlaq established a separate department of slaves (diwan-i bandagan). These slaves were used for personal service and as body-guards, with the latter numbering 40,000.
• Afif records that a large number of Firuz’s slaves (12,000) worked as artisans (kasibs).
• Barani describes a large slave market at Delhi during this period, but by the first quarter of the 16th century, there is no mention of slave markets.
• Muhammad Tughluq employed about five hundred workers in gold brocade and four thousand weavers to manufacture cloth required by the court and for making robes of honour to be given as gifts to favoured individuals.Robes of silk and wool were distributed to the nobles twice a year by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and these were manufactured in the royal karkhanas.Each karkhana was supervised by a noble with the rank of malik or khan and a mutasarrif responsible for accounts and immediate supervision.A separate diwan or accounts office existed for the karkhanas. The karkhanas produced articles for the Imperial household and military purposes, and the items were not for sale in the market. Nobles also maintained their own karkhanas.

Revenue administration

Revenue System in the Delhi Sultanate

• The revenue system and the exact magnitude of revenue-demand during the llbarite (slave dynasty) rule are uncertain. However, it is believed that the old agrarian system continued to function with a change in the composition of the supreme appropriators of the surplus produce at the centre.
• Some reconstruction of the system can be made by referring to Barani's account of the situation under Sultan Alauddin Khalji's early rule.

Three Groups of Rural Aristocracy:

• Khot: Collected land revenue (kharaj) from peasants on behalf of the state and deposited it with the officials of the diwan-i wizarat.
• Muqaddam: Similar role as khot.
• Chaudhuri: Head of a group of villages (pargana) and might not have directly collected revenue.
• Besides land revenue, cultivators had to pay house tax (ghari) and cattle or grazing tax (charaj).
• Alauddin Khalji introduced stern measures because the intermediaries were becoming intractable and ready for rebellion.
• The Sultan charged the intermediaries with:
  • Shifting their burden onto the peasantry by realizing additional levies.
  • Not paying the grazing tax.
  • Flouting the orders of revenue officials.
• The measures taken by Alauddin Khalji included:
  • Setting the state demand at half the produce of the land.
  • Measuring land and fixing revenue based on yield.
  • Standardizing demand for intermediaries and peasants.
  • Disallowing perquisites for intermediaries.
  • Collecting grazing and house tax from intermediaries.
• The 50% demand was the highest in agrarian history, making it regressive taxation.
• While intermediaries were eliminated from direct revenue collection, they still had to maintain law and order.
• Corruption and embezzlement among revenue officials increased despite higher salaries, leading to punishment by naib wazir Sharaf Qaini.
• Barani's account of oppression during Alauddin Khalji's reign describes the devastation of regions, abandonment of cultivation, and rebellion of rich peasants.
• Alauddin Khalji preferred payment in kind to build a reserve of grain and control grain prices.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughluq restored certain perquisites to intermediaries and continued measurement practices.
• Muhammad Tughluq was wrongly believed to have increased land tax rates.
• Feroz Shah abolished various cesses and introduced the water tax for irrigated lands.
• Revenue-farming became common, where revenue collection was contracted out to farmers.
• Under Feroz Shah Tughluq, the total estimated revenue was determined to be six krar and seventy-five lakhs tanka, valid for his entire reign.

Iqta system and Provincial Administration

Iqta System

Understanding the Iqta System in Turkish Rule

• Definition of Iqta: The iqta was a system where administrative officers and nobles were given land assignments as a form of payment for their services to the state.
• Origin: Initially, the iqta system was a way to divide conquered lands and resources, serving as both a reward and a method of payment.
• Evolution: Over time, the system became more structured, with clearly defined responsibilities for the holders, and evolved into a principal system of governance.
• Revenue Assignments: The Turkish rulers made revenue assignments (iqta) to their nobles (umma) as a way to consolidate power. These assignments were given instead of cash.
• Role of Assignees: The assignees, known as muqti or wali, were responsible for collecting revenue from the assigned areas. They covered their own expenses, paid the troops they maintained, and sent the surplus revenue (fawazil) to the central authority.
• Size of Assignments: The iqta assignments could vary in size, ranging from entire provinces to smaller parts. Even assignments given to nobles came with responsibilities for administration, military, and revenue collection.

Features of iqta

Types of Iqtas:

• Big Iqtas: Held by a Muqti or Wali.
• Small Iqtas: Held by an Iqta-dar.

Responsibilities of Muqti:

• Revenue Collection: The Muqti was in charge of collecting revenue from the assigned territories.
• Administrative Head: The Muqti acted as the administrative leader of the region.
• Retention of Revenue: Allowed to keep revenue equivalent to their personal pay and the salaries of troops they employed.

Nature of Iqta:

• Non-Hereditary: The grant of Iqta did not confer a right to the land nor was it hereditary.
• Transferable: Iqtas were transferable, with holders being moved every three to four years.
• Contrast with Feudal Europe: Unlike European fiefs, Iqtas were not hereditary or non-transferable.

Special Cases:

• Tithe Land: Could not be assigned as Iqta except in cases of poverty.
• Muqti Responsibilities: Included maintenance of law and order, and troops.
• Iqta-dar Responsibilities: Primarily the services they were supposed to provide to the state.

Revenue Distribution:

• Fawazil: The balance of revenue collected after personal and troop expenses was to be deposited with the state.

Representation:

• Naib Ariz: Appointed by the Muqti to represent him at the center.

Bureaucratic System:

• The system was bureaucratic, subject to the Sultan's control, including transfer, removal, punishment, audit, and regulation.

Provincial Administration:

• Headed by Muqti or Wali, responsible for maintaining an army of horsemen and foot soldiers.

Excerpt from Nizamul Mulk Tusi's Siyasatnama:

• Rights of Muqti: Muqtis should only collect rightful amounts peacefully, ensuring the safety of subjects' lives, property, and families.
• Direct Appeals: Subjects have the right to appeal directly to the Sultan without muqti interference.
• Transfer of Officials: Regular transfer of Amil and Muqtis to prevent them from becoming too powerful.

Significance

A major pillar of the state system:

• The Muqti system was a crucial part of the sultanate's state structure.

Instrument of centralisation:

• The system helped centralise power and authority within the state.

Instrument of organisation of nobility & military chiefs:

• Military chiefs and nobility were linked to the state through the Muqti system, with clearly defined responsibilities.

System of provincial governance:

• The Muqti and Wali acted similarly to provincial governors, overseeing local governance.

Mode of payment:

• The system also functioned as a mode of payment for officials and military leaders.

System for revenue collection:

• The Muqti system was crucial for revenue collection and maintaining the state’s financial stability.

Revenue base:

• Fawazil, a revenue right, was a significant source of income for the state.

System of maintaining troops:

• The system was vital for maintaining troops and ensuring military readiness.

Basis for land grants:

• It laid the groundwork for the Jagir system in the Mughal period, influencing land grant practices.

Changes in Iqta system during the Sultanate period

Balban:

• Investigated old iqta.
• Appointed Khwaja to maintain accounts in iqta.
• Focused on recovery of Fawazil.

Alauddin Khilji:

• Emphasized recovery of Fawazil.
• Increased control of wizarat over iqta.
• Abolished iqta and other rent-free grants in Doab.

Ghiasuddin Tughlaq:

• Implemented a moderate policy.
• Based demand on actual produce rather than past records.
• Limited income increase for Muqti to 1/16th or 1/11th annually.

Md. Bin Tughlaq:

• Separated troop expenditures from Muqti's personal expenses.
• State to pay troops.
• Iqta for personal salary only.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq:

• Established new Jama at 6 crore and 75 lakhs tankas.
• Granted iqta in perpetuity.
• Increased personal pay of Muqti.
• Made iqta hereditary.
• Introduced Wajh for village revenue in lieu of cash salary.

Sikandar Lodi:

• Introduced new terms Sarkar and Paragana for iqta.
• Stopped claims over Fawazil.
• Initiated sub-assignment of portions of Sarkar by principal assignees.

Provincial Administration

Growth of Central Control and Provincial Administration:

• As central control expanded, the oversight of the muqti's administration also increased.
• The naib diwan(or khwaja), responsible for revenue administration, began to be appointed from the centre.
• A barid(intelligence officer) was posted to keep the sultan informed. However, it appears that the muqti appointed his own troops, with a naib ariz at the centre to represent him.
• Appeals against the qazis and the conduct of governors could be made to the sultan. The governor could also grant revenue-free lands to scholars from his iqta.
• Under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, some governors were appointed on revenue-farming terms, aiming to maximize income but reducing central control over revenue affairs.
• These revenue-farming governors were not required to maintain troops for the centre, as military responsibilities were placed under a separate officer.
• This duality of functions did not work effectively and was abandoned by Firuz.
• According to Barani, there were 20 provinces in the Sultanat, smaller than the provinces during Akbar's time.
• For example, the middle doab of modern U.P. was divided among Meerut,Baran(now Bulandshahr), and Koil(now Aligarh), with three more provinces in the northwest.
• Provinces in the Mughal sense began under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, with the number of provinces reaching twenty-four covering the entire country up to Malabar.
• As the state became more settled and centralization increased, provincial administration evolved with a separation between fiscal and military responsibilities.
• During Muhammad Tughluq’s reign, fiscal responsibilities were partially withdrawn from the muqtis or walis and placed under central officers.
• According to Ibn Battuta, the iqta of Amroha was placed under two central officers – an amir(possibly in charge of military and administrative duties) and a wali-ul kharaj(responsible for revenue collection).
• To prevent fraud by officers, Muhammad Tughluq also ordered that the salary of soldiers maintained by iqta-holders be paid by the diwan-i wizarat.
• The diwan’s office at the centre gained greater control over fiscal matters in provinces, receiving and examining detailed statements on income and expenditure.
• This office supervised the work of revenue officials in the provinces.
• Each province had a sahib-i diwan who kept books of account and submitted information to the centre, assisted by officials like mutasarrifs.
• The entire lower revenue staff was called karkun.

Local administration

Administrative Units in Historical Context:

• Provinces: Below the provinces, the exact equivalents of modern districts or divisions are unclear.
• Historical References: Afghan histories from the time of the Lodis and the Surs mention administrative units like shiqs and sarkars.
• Shiqs: By the end of the thirteenth century, shiqs were recognized as administrative divisions, although their precise nature remains unknown.
• Sarkar: During Sher Shah's period (1540-1545 A.D.), shiqs evolved into well-defined units known as sarkars.
• Administrative Officials: Officials associated with sarkars included shiqdar and faujdar, though their responsibilities were not clearly delineated.
• Parganas, Sadis, and Chaurasis: These were collections of villages, with sadis (unit of 100) and chaurasis (unit of 84) being specific types of administrative units.
• Chaudhari: A hereditary land-holder, often responsible for overseeing areas under khalisa.
• Ibn Battuta's Observation: The chaudhuri was the head of a hundred villages, forming the basis of the later administrative unit pargana.
• Village Administration: The village was the smallest administrative unit, with functionaries like khut,muqaddam(headman), and patwari.
• Khut: Zamindar of one or more villages.
• Muqaddam: Village headman.
• Patwari: Village official responsible for maintaining records.
• Judicial Administration: Patterned after central administration, with qazi and sadr courts functioning in provinces.
• Korwal: Responsible for maintaining law and order.
• Panchayat: Heard civil cases at the village level.
• Evolution of Centralized Government: The process began with consolidation of the central government, which gradually extended direct control over regions, diminishing the powers of local chiefs.
• Mughal Era: The task of establishing clear administrative forms was later taken up by the Mughals.

Theory of Kingship under Delhi Sultanate

Succession in the Sultanate: A Historical Overview:

• During the Sultanate period, there was no clear and well-defined law of succession.
• The hereditary principle was accepted but not consistently applied. There was no strict rule that only the eldest son would succeed; in some cases, even a daughter could be nominated, as seen with Raziya Sultan.
• A slave, unless freed (manumitted), could not claim sovereignty. Power struggles were common, often decided by force.
• After Aibak's death, it was not his son Aram Shah but his slave and son-in-law, Iltutmish, who seized the throne.
• Following Iltutmish's death in 1236 A.D., there was a prolonged period of struggle until Balban, Iltutmish's slave of the "Forty," assumed power in 1266 A.D.
• Balban attempted to redefine kingship and restore the prestige of the Sultanate. However, the struggle for power continued after his death, showing that force remained a key factor in succession.
• Balban's theory of kingship emphasized the Sultan as the "shadow of God" and sought to centralize authority and promote the monarchy's prestige.
• He followed the Iranian theory of kingship, where the ruler was considered divine or semi-divine and accountable only to God.
• Balban maintained a strict court order and upheld the dignity of the Sultanate, refusing to share power and focusing on lineage and race.
• Alauddin Khalji, who followed Balban's approach, emphasized that kingship was not restricted to any privileged class but open to those with power and ability.
• Alauddin had a near-secular outlook, separating state and religion, and ruled based on political exigencies rather than religious constraints.
• He implemented a system of spies to keep nobles in check and believed in reducing charitable lands to prevent rebellion.
• Alauddin's imperial outlook involved expanding the Sultanate's influence over the Deccan and South, establishing tributary states while maintaining formal relations with the caliph.
• Both Balban and Alauddin Khalji emphasized the ruler's authority and the centralization of power, albeit with different approaches to governance and succession.

Muhammad Bin Tughluq’s theory of Kingship

Highly Autocratic and Despotic:

• Near Secular Outlook: Emphasized the separation of state and religion, focusing on political considerations and state interests.
• While he did not openly defy the Shariat, he also did not go out of his way to gain the support of the Ulema on important issues.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq replaced the name of the Abbasid caliph on his coins and received a formal rescript from the Caliph, but this did not change the orthodox's attitude towards him.
• Negation of Ulemas: The Sultan personally enforced justice, overruling the advice of Ulemas and Qazis when it contradicted the law.
• He punished Ulemas severely when found guilty of embezzlement or rebellion.
• Catholic Approach to Religions: He was the first Sultan to participate in the festival of Holi and to employ Hindus in high offices.
• Imperial Approach: His ambitions surpassed those of Alauddin, leading to the peak territorial expansion of the Sultanate.
• He had grand imperialistic ambitions and a vision of universal conquest, exploring new avenues within and outside the empire.
• Creation of Composite Nobility: His approach to nobility was based on talent rather than race or status.
• He included individuals from low-status backgrounds, such as cooks and gardeners, into the nobility.
• His nobility was diverse, including converts and Hindus, but this heterogeneous group could not be relied upon in times of difficulty.
• He was the first to include Sufis in the nobility and formed matrimonial alliances with Sufis.
• Innovative Approaches: He implemented measures like establishing a second capital in Daulatabad, introducing token currency, conducting agricultural experiments, and launching foreign campaigns.
• Firuz Shah Tughluq's Theory of Kingship: Linked state and religion, ruling on the basis of Islam.
• He appeased Ulemas, abolished un-Islamic taxes, and imposed Jaziya on Brahmins.
• Benevolent and Welfare Approach: Promoted irrigation, established marriage and employment bureaus, and focused on public works and education, including the establishment of madrasas and hospitals.
• Appeasement Approach: Toward nobles and Muqtis, making Iqta hereditary.
• Maintaining Link with Caliph: By using the caliph's name on coins and in khutbas.
• Accession of the Lodis (1451-1526 A.D.): The Afghans introduced a new element, seeking to partition the empire among their clans.
• The Afghans accepted the Sultan's authority but wanted to divide the empire among their clans, such as the Farmulis, Sarwanis, and Niyazhs.
• After Sultan Sikandar Lodi's death in 1517 A.D., the empire was divided between his sons Ibrahim and Jalal, with clan members sharing royal privileges.
• The Afghan concept of maintaining tribal militias weakened the military efficiency of the Central Government over time.
• Sikandar Lodi attempted to control ambitious Afghan nobles, but the Afghan polity leaned towards decentralization, leading to eventual fissures.