Society: Composition of Rural Society, Ruling Classes Under the Sultanate | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Composition of Rural Society

Rural Society in Medieval India:

Rural society was diverse and stratified, with various social classes playing distinct roles.

Rural Intermediaries/Elite:

• Chaudhuris: Historians like Irfan Habib suggest that the chaudhuris were successors, albeit with diminished authority, of the heads of the chaurasi(a group of eighty-four villages) during the times of the Gujara-Pratiharas and Chalukyas.
• Khuts: Smaller landlords who held a lesser degree of power compared to the chaudhuris.
• Muqaddams: Village headmen who played a crucial role in local administration.
• Historian Barani noted their high status, indicating that these groups were privileged and acted as middlemen between the peasantry and the state.
• Land Revenue Policies: Under Alauddin Khalji, the privileges of these rural intermediaries were abolished, yet they maintained a higher standard of living compared to ordinary peasants.
• Post-Khalji Period: After Alauddin's death, these intermediaries regained their privileges. The need for these intermediaries in the land revenue system led to a moderation of policies against them.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughluq and Feroz Tughluq:These rulers granted further concessions to rural intermediaries. Under Feroz Tughluq, these intermediaries were collectively referred to as zamindars, a term that gained prominence during the Mughal period.

12th Century Jain Writer Hemachandra: Divided village folk into four categories:

• Produce-sharing peasants: Known as karshak or ardhikas(receivers of a half share).
• Plough-shares and field laborers: Referred to by various terms such as halavakaka,kinasa, and karshak.
• Free peasants: Also called malik-i-zamin(owners of the land) or khud-kasht(owner cultivators).
• Village artisans: Including cobblers, rope-makers, and watchmen, some of whom belonged to the svapach(untouchable) category.

Peasants as Majority:

• Peasants constituted the vast majority of the population, working hard to achieve barely enough for subsistence.

Rural Moneylenders and Rural Labourers:

• Rural moneylenders and labourers were also part of this society, with the poverty of peasants and field laborers starkly contrasting with the luxurious lives of the landed aristocracy, the samantas.

Village Society Dynamics:

• Village society was marked by significant inequality, with a growing cash nexus under the Sultanate period exacerbating disparities.
• While the agrarian policies of the Sultans aimed to secure a steady income for the ruler and state officials, they also had profound effects on rural society and economy, although medieval chroniclers often overlooked this aspect.

Rural Society Stratification:

• Rural society was clearly stratified, with a hierarchy between superior right holders (khots,muqaddams, and chaudhuris) and ordinary peasants (raiyat).
• The caste system was a significant institution in rural society, further entrenching social divisions.

Composition of Ruling Classes

The Role of the Ruling Class in Consolidation and Centralization:

• The ruling class played a crucial role in consolidating conquered territories and sharing the country's resources.
• The Turks introduced the institution of the iqta, which significantly contributed to centralization.
• As centralization efforts increased, changes were observed in the iqta system and the composition of the ruling class.

Ruling Class During the Ghurian Invasion:

• North India was divided into various principalities ruled by rais and ranas(local chiefs).
• At the village level,khot and muqaddam(village headman) represented the rural aristocracy.
• In between, the chaudhuri was the head of a hundred villages (eighty-four villages according to Irfan Habib).

Ruling classes of Delhi sultanate

Nobility

Formation of the Early Turkish Ruling Class:

• The early Turkish ruling class shared political and financial powers with the Sultans.
• Nobles, known as amirah, were initially independent in remote areas of conquered territories, where they served as governors designated as muqti or wali. Their territories were called iqtas.
• Over time, the practice of transferring muqtis from one iqta to another became common.
• The pre-Ghoriaran political structure persisted, with tribute collected from rais and ranas, who were responsible for tax collection.
• Contemporary historians like Minhaj Siraj and Barani indicate that the most important nobles and Sultans in the early Sultanate were from the families of Turkish slave-officers.
• Many early Turkish nobles and Sultans, such as Aibak and Iltutmish, started their careers as slaves but received letters of manumission(khat-i azadi) before becoming Sultans.
• Iltutmish established his own corps of Turkish slaves called Shamsi maliks, also referred to by Barani as turkan-i chihilgani(“The Forty”). His nobility included free-born officers, including Tajiks.
• The succession issue after Iltutmish’s death highlighted divisions among the nobles.
• Despite internal conflicts, the ruling class exhibited solidarity against outsiders. For instance,Raziya’s(1236-1240) appointment of an Abyssinian, Jamaluddin Yaqut, as amir-i akhur(“master of the royal horses”) caused significant resentment.
• Race and possibly religion played crucial roles in the formation of ruling groups.
• The ruling class was not a unified entity but comprised various factions and cliques, each fiercely protecting their positions.
• The Turkish military leaders who accompanied and participated in the Ghorian invasion formed the core of the early Turkish ruling class, securing most key positions at the center and in the provinces.

The Ilbarites

The Sultans and the Nobility: A Struggle for Power:

• Support from Nobility: The Sultans, like Iltutmish, needed the backing of the nobility to gain and keep power. Iltutmish became king with the help of Delhi's nobles.
• Turkish Nobility's Exclusiveness: The early Turkish nobility wanted to keep their exclusive right to rule. They resisted challenges from other groups. For example, when Nasiruddin Mahmud tried to reduce their power by replacing the Turkish noble Balban with Im’aduddin Raihan, an Indian convert, it backfired.
• Minhaj's Protest: Minhaj, a historian, expressed the anger of the "pure lineage Turks" who didn't want Raihan, an Indian, to have power over them. The Turkish nobles' opposition forced the Sultan to remove Raihan and bring back Balban.
• Balban's Measures: When Balban became Sultan (1266-1286), he took steps to weaken the power of the turkan-i-chihilgani, the group of Turkish nobles. Barani, a historian, noted that Balban had some older Turkish nobles killed to assert his control.

The Khaljis:

Barani's View on the Khaljis and Turks:

• Barani, a historical figure, believed that the Khaljis were of a different "race" than the Turks.
• Modern scholars like C.E. Bosworth classify them as Turks.
• In the thirteenth century, the Khaljis were not seen as Turks, making their rise to power seem novel because they were not part of the ruling class before.

Alauddin Khalji's Changes to the Ruling Class:

• Alauddin Khalji weakened the power of the older Turkish nobility by introducing new groups into the ruling class.
• He included Mongols (referred to as 'New Muslims'), Indians, and Abyssinians.
• Malik Kafur, an Abyssinian, is a famous example of this new inclusion.

Expansion of the Ruling Class under the Tughluqs:

• The Tughluq dynasty continued to broaden the composition of the ruling class.

The Kotwalian Group in Delhi:

• During the reign of Balban and Alauddin Khalji, there was a small group in Delhi called the kotwalian.
• This group was led by Fakhruddin, the kotwal (police chief) of Delhi.
• The kotwalian group, being a family group, seemed to have played a political role during and after Balban's death.

The Tughluq

During the reign of Muhammad Tughluq:

• The ruling class became significantly more diverse, including Indians, Afghans, and a larger number of foreign elements, particularly from Khurasan. The Sultan referred to these Khurasanis as aizza(dear ones).
• Many Khurasanis were appointed as amir sadah(commanders of hundreds).
• Barani criticizes the Sultan for elevating the “low-born”(jawahir-i lutrah) to high positions, including musicians, barbers, and cooks.
• An example of this is Peera Mali(a gardener) who was given the diwan-i wizarat(ministry of finance).
• Converted individuals like Aziz-ud Din Khammar(a distiller) and Qawamul Mulk Maqbul, along with Afghans like Malik Makh and Malik Shahu Lodi, and Hindus like Sai Raj Dhara and Bhiran Rai, were granted iqta(land grants) and positions of power.

During Feroz Tughluq

Social Origins of Nobles During Sultanate Reign:

• The reign of the Sultanate does not provide a clear pattern regarding the social origins of the nobles. There appeared to be a smooth and seemingly peaceful relationship between the Sultan and the amirs.
• Certain titles were used to refer to the nobles:
• khan: Often associated with Afghan nobles.
• amir: Came to signify a commander.
• malik: Denoted a chief, ruler, or king.
• Along with these titles, nobles were bestowed with symbols of dignity, known as maratib, which included:
• khilat(robe of honour), sword, and dagger presented by the Sultan.
• Horses and elephants for use in processions.
• Canopy of State and grant of parasol (chhatri).
• Insignia and kettledrums.
• It is noteworthy that every Sultan aimed to create and organize a group of nobles who would be personally loyal to him. This led to the use of terms like Qutbi,Shamsi,Balbani, and Alai amirs.
• Regardless of their strength, every group sought the Sultan's attention because all privileges and power emanated from the sovereign. This dynamic gradually strengthened the Sultan's position, especially if he was strong-willed.
• Afghan Recruitment: The Afghans were often recruited into the feudal bureaucracy of the Delhi Sultanate. With the arrival of the Lodis, Afghan influence and predominance increased.

Social origin

Social Mobility and Nobility in the Early Phase:

• During the early phase, there was significant social mobility among the nobles. Individuals from various social backgrounds could rise to the position of Malik if they had the ability to attract and maintain a military following or caught the attention of the Sultan.
• Many nobles started their careers as slaves and gradually climbed the social ladder.

13th Century Nobility:

• The open character of the nobility persisted in the 13th century due to the rapid rise and fall of dynasties, leading to the displacement of nobles from previous regimes.
• During this period, there were few families whose members held positions of high grandees for more than one generation.

14th Century Nobility:

• In the 14th century, with the rise of the Khaljis and later the Tughlaqs, the social character of the nobility broadened and became more stabilized.
• The breaking of the Turkish monopoly on high offices allowed for a broader recruitment to the nobility, including Khaljis, Afghans, and Hindustanis, while Turks were not excluded.

Legacy and Social Honor:

• Even when a noble lost power and position, the tradition of former dignity and social honor was passed down to their descendants, who believed in the eventual restoration of their power.
• Together with the clergy, these sections made up the ashraf, or respected sections of society.

State Responsibilities:

• The state had a special responsibility towards the ashraf, not only in employment matters but also in providing pensions to widows and funds for the marriage of unmarried daughters.

Division among Nobles:

• There was a division among the ahl-i-saif(men of the sword) and the ahl-i-qalam(literati).
• The latter were chosen for judicial and clerical posts, including the ulema.
• As long as administration involved military exercises for collecting land-revenue from chiefs,muqaddams, and peasants, the literati were kept away from administration.

Literati and Administration:

• Despite the need for the wazir(minister) to come from the literati class, the nobles generally looked down on the literati, considering them unfit for administrative or political matters.
• For instance, Alauddin Khalji disregarded the advice of Qazi Mughis, a nawisanda (clerk), on military and political matters.

Category of nobles

Categories of Nobles in the Delhi Sultanate:

• Three Main Categories: Nobles were primarily divided into three categories: Khans (highest), Maliks, and Amirs. However, this categorization was not always clear-cut.
• Amirs: Initially, individuals in junior court positions, such as sarjandar (commander of the king’s personal forces) and saqi-i-khas (in charge of water and drinks), were called amirs. Over time, the term became more loosely associated with individuals of wealth and influence in the government.
• Maliks and Khans: Maliks and Khans held the most important positions in the government. The category of Khan was influenced by Mongol practices, where a Qa-an (Khan) was a commander of 10,000 troops. In the Delhi Sultanate, the title ‘Khan’ signified special status.
• Historical Accounts: In historical lists of nobles by Minhaj Siraj and Barani, only Maliks are mentioned, highlighting their prominence.
• Noble Titles: Nobles were often given titles like Khwaja Jahan, Imad-ul-Mulk, and Nizam-ul-Mulk, which conferred dignity and status.
• Privileges (Maratib): Nobles were awarded various privileges such as robes, swords, daggers, flags, and drums. These items were highly valued as they signified status and closeness to the Sultan.
• Special Awards: On special occasions, nobles were also awarded horses and elephants with expensive trappings, further enhancing their status.

Number of Nobles

1. According to Minhaj Siraj, during Iltutmish's time, there were 32 Maliks, including 8 princes who were displaced Central Asian rulers. This suggests that the term Turkan-i-Chahalgani, or the corps of forty Turks mentioned by Barani, likely referred to the number of top nobles.
2. In Balban's reign, Barani listed 36 Maliks, excluding qazis. By the time of Alauddin Khalji, the number of top nobles increased to 48, with 7 of them being relatives, including sons.
3. This information indicates that until the Sultanate expanded rapidly after Alauddin Khalji's death, the number of top nobles or Maliks in the country was relatively small.

Factional fighting

Factional Struggles Among Nobles:

• Among the small group of nobles, there was intense factional fighting influenced by mutual relationships and ethnicity.
• The Turks viewed themselves as superior to others like Tajiks, Khaljis, Afghans, and Hindustanis.

Turkish Dominance and Shifts in Power:

• After the death of Iltutmish, the Turks ousted the Tajiks and established a near-monopoly over high offices.
• This Turkish dominance was challenged with the rise of the Khaljis.

Advancement under Khaljis and Tughlaqs:

• During the Khalji and Tughlaq periods, Indian Muslims made significant progress, primarily due to personal efficiency.

Social Value of Foreign Descent:

• Despite the advancements, having foreign blood or being from a well-known foreign family still held considerable social value and esteem.
• This is evidenced by the accounts of the Moorish traveler Ibn Battutah.

The dispersal of resources among ruling class

Revenue from Land (Iqta):

• The revenue from land, known as iqta, was assigned by the state to the nobles.
• The muqtis or iqta-holders had specific responsibilities:
• Military Assistance: They were required to provide military support to the Sultan when needed.
• Law and Order: They were responsible for maintaining law and order in their assigned areas.
• Revenue Collection: They had to collect revenue from their iqta.
• Through the iqta system, the Sultan managed to exert control over the nobles:
• Non-Hereditary Assignments: The revenue assignments were typically non-hereditary and transferable.
• Centralization Trend: The requirement to send excess collected revenue (fawazil) to the diwan-i wizarat symbolized a move towards centralization.
• Accountability: Muqtis were also obligated to submit accounts of their revenue collection and expenditure to the treasury.
• Strict Auditing: Audits were conducted rigorously to prevent fraud.
• Alauddin Khalji's Measures: To further control the nobility, Alauddin Khalji implemented additional measures:
• Barids: Intelligence officers (barids) kept the Sultan informed about the activities of the nobles.
• Social Restrictions: The Sultan imposed checks on the social interactions of the nobles, including requiring permission for marriages between them.
• Reason for Controls: These checks and restrictions were primarily due to recurring incidents of rebellions where muqtis used local resources to rebel or vie for the throne.

Measures for more control by Muhammad Tughluq

The Nobility and the Iqta System:

• In contrast to earlier practices, nobles were now given iqta as a substitute for cash salary, while their troops were paid in cash directly by the treasury.
• These new fiscal arrangements and greater control over assignments led to conflicts between the Sultan and the nobles, as the latter were stripped of the benefits from iqta management.

During the Reign of Feroz Tughluq:

• There was a retreat from increased central authority over iqta practices.
• Feroz began granting iqta to the sons and heirs of existing iqtaholders.
• Although the period saw relatively few rebellions, it also marked the beginning of disintegration and decentralization within the administration.

By the Time of the Lodis (1451-1526 A.D.):

• The iqtadars(now referred to as wajhdars) were no longer subject to frequent transfers
• indicating a shift in the management and stability of the iqta system.

Social stratification was also visible in Muslim society

Social Divide in Medieval India

Ashraf (Respected Class):

• Composed of nobility and clergy.
• The state had a special responsibility towards this group, including employment, pensions for widows, and funds for marrying off unmarried daughters.

Ajlaf (Lower Class):

• Consisted of common citizens and professionals like weavers, peasants, and laborers.
• Social interactions and marriages between ashraf and ajlaf were highly discouraged.

This social hierarchy, although present among Muslims in West and Central Asia, became more rigid in India due to the existing caste-based stratification.
High offices in the state were believed to be reserved for the 'respectable' classes (ashraf).
Resentment arose when Muhammad Tughlaq appointed individuals from the ajlaf or lower castes to high positions based on efficiency.

Firuz Tughlaq:

• Gained approval for appointing nobles from respected classes or those with a history of service to the king.
• Prejudice was against the inferior classes, not against 'Hindustanis' as a whole.

Salary to Nobles:

• During Balban's reign, nobles often borrowed money from merchants like the Sahs and Multanis for their expenses.
• A shift occurred with Alauddin Khalji, who centralized land revenue administration.
• Land revenue was emphasized to be paid in cash, even in areas assigned as iqta.
• Nobles were assigned large salaries, with Firuz Tughlaq offering even higher emoluments.

This centralization allowed the elite to hoard wealth. Notable examples include Malik Shahin and Imad-ul-Mulk, who left behind vast fortunes.

Trade and Economy:

• The growth of a money economy changed attitudes towards trade and traders.
• Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq engaged in overseas trade and involved traders in administration.
• Major investments by nobles were in orchards, with a significant increase under Firuz Tughlaq.
• Further productive investments by nobles awaited the re-centralization under Akbar.

Literacy of nobles

Nobles and Cultural Patronage in Medieval India:

• Nobles in medieval India were not illiterate. Even slaves bought in the slave markets of Samarqand and Bokhara were educated before being resold.
• Many of these slaves, although newly converted to Islam, had absorbed the Islamic religious and cultural norms of Central Asia and Khurasan. However, they lacked the cultural refinements of the established nobility and were not expected to be knowledgeable patrons of culture.
• It was considered prestigious for nobles to patronize poets and writers, sometimes offering them extravagant rewards. This dynamic began to shift with the emergence of figures like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Sijzi in the late 13th century.
• Over time, a new Indo-Muslim culture began to take shape, with many nobles and Sufis actively contributing to it. For example,Zia Nakkshabi(d. 1350) wrote on various subjects, including poetry, and translated several Sanskrit works into Persian.
• As a result, nobles evolved from being mere rude warriors to becoming patrons of culture, playing a significant role in the cultural development of the time.

The Chiefs—Emergence of “Zamindars”

Rajputs and Their Role in Medieval India:

• Despite losing political power across most of northern India, except for Rajasthan and some remote hill regions, Rajput rajas continued to dominate large rural areas in places like Punjab, the doab,Bihar, and Gujarat.
• These Rajput leaders, known by titles like rai,rana, and rawat, were often referred to as chiefs in contemporary accounts.
• They maintained their own armed forces and lived in fortresses in the countryside, playing a crucial role in the political,social, and economic life of these regions.
• Despite being portrayed as enemies in historical sources, a relationship of constant hostility was impractical for both the Turkish rulers and the Rajputs.
• For the Turks, it was more convenient to allow these chiefs to govern their territories as long as they paid tribute and remained generally loyal.
• Historical examples show a growing political alliance between the Turkish rulers and Hindu chiefs. For instance, during Firuz Tughlaq's invasion of Bengal, he was supported by rais from eastern U.P., including Udai Singh, the Rai of Gorakhpur and Champaran.
• In another instance, when Malik Chhajju, a nephew of Balban and governor of Kara, rebelled against Jalaluddin Khalji, he was supported by local rais, rawats, and payaks. Although Malik Chajju was defeated, this marked the beginning of Hindu chiefs attending the Sultan's court.
• Despite these growing ties during the Sultanate period, the position of the chiefs remained precarious. The Delhi sultans aimed to overthrow Hindu chiefs whenever possible or at least reduce their power by extending imperial revenue administration to their territories.
• By the 14th century, there were increasing references to zamindars, a term used to designate hereditary intermediaries. This term, which originated in India, was popularized by figures like Amir Khusrau.
• Over time, zamindar came to refer to khuts,muqaddams, and chaudhris, and under the Mughals, it was applied to all hereditary landowners or those with a hereditary share in land revenue, including chiefs.
• The contrast between the affluence of privileged rural sections and the poverty of others became more pronounced during this period.

Adjuncts to the Ruling Class: Judicial, Junior Administrative Officers, and the Ulema

The Support System of the Ruling Classes:

• The ruling classes, particularly the nobility, relied heavily on a group of lower-level functionaries to assist them in their duties.
• These functionaries were in addition to the numerous servants, slaves, and other retainers employed by the nobility.
• The functionaries can be broadly categorized into two groups:
• Judicial and Religious Functionaries: These individuals were responsible for maintaining law and order, as well as overseeing religious matters.
• Revenue and Administrative Functionaries: This group managed the collection of taxes and the overall administration of the nobility's estates.

Judicial and Religious Functionaries

Judicial and Administrative System for Muslims:

• Judicial and administrative system for Muslims included qazis(judges) and muftis(legal experts) appointed in cities with significant Muslim populations.
• Civil Justice: They handled civil justice for Muslims, while Hindus dealt with their cases based on customary law and Dharmashastras.
• Criminal Justice: They also managed criminal justice, with the Chief Qazi at the top of the hierarchy.
• Dad Bak: In the capital and other cities, a Dad Bak was responsible for overseeing tax collection, ensuring fairness, and supervising amirs who maintained property records for taxation purposes.
• Muhtasib: The muhtasib, working under the kotwal(police chief), ensured Muslims adhered to sharia law and obligatory practices like roza(fasting) and namaz(prayer). They also checked weights and measures.
• All these officials were paid, and their numbers increased with the growing Muslim population.
• Theological Class (Ulema): Included Imams,muazzins(call to prayer), reciters of the Holy Quran, and religious teachers in maqtabs(schools) and madrasas(colleges).
• This class was responsible for various religious and educational functions within the Muslim community.

Ulema

Role and Influence of Ulema in the Sultanate:

• Position and Training: The ulema held a significant position in the Sultanate and were highly respected. They typically underwent training in Muslim Law, logic, theology, and some Arabic.
• Appointments: Important legal and judicial positions, such as sadr-us sudur, shaikh-ul Islam, qazi, mujtahid, muhtasib, imam, and khatib, were filled from among the ulema.
• Relationship with Rulers: The ulema were seen as part of the ruling class, supported by revenue grants from the Sultan and often by members of the ruling class.
• Ideological Significance: They provided legitimacy to the ruling class and had influence in both religious and political matters.
• Nobles' View: Nobles generally considered the ulema unfit for administrative or political roles. For instance,Alauddin Khalji disregarded the advice of Qazi Mughis on military and political issues.
• Criticism: Amir Khusrau criticized qazis who accepted judicial positions as corrupt and unfit for responsibility.
• Political Role: Sultans limited the ulema's role to judicial cases, religious matters, and education, excluding them from political affairs.
• Bridge between Classes: The ulema acted as a bridge between the ruling classes and ordinary Muslims, fostering a sense of unity among Muslims.
• Foreign Ulema: Many ulema were foreigners who fled to India due to the Mongols or were drawn to India's prosperity. They often lacked an understanding of India and, along with some Indian theologians, heightened social tensions between Hindus and Muslims by emphasizing religious conflict over social harmony.

Revenue and Administrative Functionaries

Key Points about the Administrative System during Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughlaq:

• Alauddin Khalji introduced a new revenue administration system that required many clerks and officials to manage the growing central and provincial administration.
• Barani described the power of these officials, the potential for their corruption and oppression, and the harsh measures taken by Alauddin against them.
• Many officials may have been converted to Indian Muslims or members of the ulema class.
• Most lower officials were likely Muslims, except for the muqaddams and patwaris(village accountants), who were Hindus and lived in villages.
• Under Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Hindus began to enter the lower official class, leading to the emergence of Persian-knowing Hindus in high positions.
• Poets, scholars, historians, doctors, and lower government functionaries like amils(revenue collectors) and muharrirs(accountants) often came from the same social class.
• This class can be referred to as the literati or educated, literate class.
• In a predominantly illiterate country, educated individuals who could also speak in the name of religion held great prestige.
• The Sultanate was divided into Iqtas(administered by muqtis), which were further divided into Shiqs(administered by shiqdars) and then into Parganas. Parganas comprised several villages and were headed by amils.