The Rise of Press, Literature and Public Opinion | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Press in India

• The concept of the "press" is ancient, rooted in humanity's curiosity about the world.
• Early forms of communication, like writing on walls and stones,predate Christ and mark the beginning of the press in India.
• Emperor Ashoka's edicts, carved in stone, are historical examples of early information dissemination.
• As paper and writing materials were developed, rudimentary state records and messages, including spying reports, became more common.
• According to J. Natarajan, early "newsletters" during the Mughal era can be seen as primitive newspapers.
• These manuscript newspapers served as crucial sources of information about various regions within the empires.
• The tradition of these newsletters continued until the East India Company took control of India.
• These newsletters may have inspired James Augustus Hickey to launch the Bengal Gazette, one of the first newspapers in 1780.

Origin and Growth of the Press in India

• In 1454, John Gutenberg's invention of the printing press marked a significant milestone in human history. It facilitated the rapid spread of information and the development of ideas through debates and writings.
• The printing technique gained popularity in various countries over the years, including Italy (1465), France (1470), Spain (1483), Portugal (1495), Russia (1555), Austria (1640). The 18th century saw the rise of newspapers.
• The Portuguese Jesuits introduced the printing press to India in 1557, primarily for printing Christian literature.
• The first printing press in India was set up in Bombay in 1674, followed by Madras in 1772 and Calcutta in 1779. Despite the British bringing the printing press to India, they were initially resistant to the emergence of newspapers.
• Dr. R. Das Gupi, a former Director of the National Library in Calcutta, noted that before the Bengal Gazette was established, a Dutch merchant named William Bolts attempted to highlight the need for a printing press in Calcutta but was deported by the council.
• James August Hicky launched the first newspaper, The Bengal Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser, on January 29, 1780. His publication aimed to be politically neutral but often focused on gossip and scandals related to the East India Company officials.
• Hicky's bold criticisms of prominent figures, including Warren Hastings, led to his imprisonment and the temporary ban of his paper. Despite facing losses, Hicky persisted until his paper was seized in March 1782.
• Following Hicky, several other newspapers emerged in Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, but most had a brief existence. Peter Reed founded the Calcutta Gazette and Oriental Advertiser in 1784, while Richard Johnston established the Madras Courier in 1785. The Bombay Gazette was published in 1791.
• The East India Company began to scrutinize newspaper content more closely, imposing strict regulations on printing presses and editors. Censorship was introduced in Madras in 1795, requiring newspapers like The Madras Gazette to submit material for approval before publication.
• In Bengal, various papers such as the Bengal Journal, Indian World, Bengal Harkaru faced the ire of the East India Company authorities, leading to legal restrictions on the press. The early 19th century saw stringent control of the press under Lords Wellesley and Warren Hastings.
• In May 1799, new rules were introduced requiring newspapers to include the names of the printer, editor, owner in every issue.
• Newspapers were also required to submit all content for review before publication, though these censorship rules were not strictly enforced.
• Between 1813 and 1818, significant developments led to various weekly and monthly newspapers emerging in Bengal, such as Dig Darshan, Samachar Darpan, the Friend of India.
• In 1818, the Adams regulations were implemented, granting editors greater freedom while maintaining strict oversight.
• During this period, Raja Ram Mohan Roy and James Silk Buckingham advocated for press freedom.
• Although pre-censorship was lifted, several regulations remained in place to regulate the press.
• Ram Mohan Roy's publications included Sambad Kaumdi in Bengali and Mirat-ul-Akhbar in Persian, alongside Mumbai Samachar, a prominent paper from Bombay that still exists today.
• The press began to criticize the administration, leading to the introduction of the first press ordinance in 1823.
• This ordinance imposed strict regulations on editors and prescribed heavy penalties for violations.
• It also prohibited East India Company staff from engaging with newspapers while encouraging social and religious news, particularly from missionaries.
• Under Governor-General William Bentick and with the influence of Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the social climate in India improved.
• In 1835, Governor-General Charles Metcafe relaxed many of the previously imposed restrictions on the press.
• The first Indian-owned newspaper, according to N. Krishna Murthy, was the Bengal Gazette, founded by Gangadhar Battacharya.
• The press made significant progress in various Indian languages, with Urdu and Persian papers in north-west India gaining popularity.
• The Marathi and Gujarati press also began to establish their presence, with newspapers in Hindi, Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil, Oriya, Assamese, Punjabi starting to emerge around 1850 or later.

Indian-Owned Newspaper and Linguistic Diversity:

• First Indian-Owned Newspaper: According to N. Krishna Murthy, the Bengal Gazette, founded by Gangadhar Battacharya, is recognized as the first Indian-owned newspaper.
• Progress in Indian Languages: The press made significant advancements in various Indian languages.
• Urdu and Persian Papers: In north-west India, newspapers in Urdu and Persian gained popularity.
• Marathi and Gujarati Press: The Marathi and Gujarati press began to establish their presence during this period.
• Emergence of Newspapers in Regional Languages: Newspapers in languages such as Hindi, Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil, Oriya, Assamese, Punjabi started to emerge around 1850 or later.

The War of Independence

Press Growth and Setbacks (1857-1860):

• During the 1857 war of independence, the press faced challenges, press freedom was significantly restricted.
• After the war, control of India shifted from the East India Company to the British Crown.
• In 1859, with Lord Canning as Viceroy, the Indian Penal Code (IPC) was introduced.
• Newspapers from Bengal, such as Nil Darpan, The Hindu, Patriot, Shome Prakash, Indian Mirror, Bengalee, significantly influenced public opinion.
• The launch of Amrita Bazar Patrika, first in Bengali and later in English, marked a radical shift in Indian journalism.

Emergence of English Newspapers:

• Notable English newspapers were established during this period.
• The Times of India was formed from the merger of four papers:The Bombay Times,The Courier,The Standard, The Telegraph.
• Other significant English newspapers included The Pioneer,Civil and Military Gazette, The Statesman.
• In Madras,The Mail(an evening newspaper) and The Hindu, now the largest circulated paper, were also established.

Growth of Indian Language Press

• There was a surge in the Indian language press, with newspapers emerging in nearly all major Indian languages.
• The Bengali language press led the way, followed by presses in Hindi, Marathi, Urdu, Tamil, Gujarati, Malayalam, Kannada, Punjabi, others.

Nationalism and the Indian Press

Contributions of Great Indian Leaders to the Press

• Many of India’s renowned figures, including Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, played significant roles in the development of the press.
• These leaders, along with others like Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, were often both prominent journalists and freedom fighters.
• Famous newspapers such as Bande Matram, Kesari, Amrita Bazar Patrika, National Herald were established during this time.

Challenges Faced by Newspapers:

• Newspapers faced numerous challenges, including strict regulations on news-gathering, printing, display.
• Laws like the Vernacular Press Act, Official Secrets Act, sections of the Indian Penal Code restricted the growth of the press.
• Despite these challenges, the press continued to grow, supported by the Indian populace.
• Gandhiji emphasized the role of newspapers in reflecting popular feelings, promoting positive sentiments, exposing faults.

Some Great Newspapers

Formation of Indian National Congress and the Role of Newspapers:

• When the Indian National Congress was formed in 1885, various newspapers in different languages had a significant readership. Notable publications included The Tribune, Kesari, Spectator, Indu-Prakash, Maratha, Amrita Bazar Patrika, The Pioneer, The Bengalee, The Englishman, The Hindu, all of which were well-respected and widely circulated across India.
• During this period, periodical journalism also emerged, with The Illustrated Weekly launched in Bombay and The Capital established in Calcutta. Monthly journals like The Hindustan Review and Indian Review also began publication.
• In 1889, under Lord Curzon, the Governor-General of India, measures such as the partition of Bengal and the India Official Secrets Act, 1889 further alienated the Indian populace from the British government. The press vehemently opposed these actions. By this time, stringent laws like the Press and Registration of Books Act and Sections 124-A and 505 of the IPC had made it extremely challenging for the press to operate. Many nationalist leaders, including Lala Lajpat Rai, Aurobindo Ghose, B.C. Pal and Lokmanya Tilak, faced arrest for their contributions through the press.
• It is noteworthy that many prominent English-language newspapers in India were established between the 1860s and early 1920s. These included renowned publications such as The Hindu, The Times of India, The Statesman, The Amrita Bazar Patrika (now defunct), The Pioneer and The Hindustan Times, along with numerous newspapers in various Indian languages across the country.

The Vernacular Press Act of 1878

The Vernacular Press Act of 1878 was a response to the growing criticism of the government by the vernacular press in India following the Rebellion of 1857. Here are the key points:

• After 1858, the European press in India supported the government, while the vernacular press became more critical.
• The vernacular press criticized the government, especially during times of crisis, such as the famine of 1876-77 and the expenses of the Imperial Darbar in 1877.
• The Act aimed to control the vernacular press and punish seditious writings. It targeted only Indian language newspapers.
• It empowered District Magistrates to regulate vernacular newspapers, requiring publishers to enter into bonds and promising not to publish anything that could incite disaffection or racial animosity.
• The Act treated the English and vernacular press differently, with no right of appeal to courts for the vernacular press.
• Newspapers like The Somprakash,The Bharat Mihir,The Dacca Prakash, others faced action under the Act.
• While the Act initially succeeded in making the vernacular press more submissive, it faced criticism. Lord Cranbrook, the Secretary of State, objected to certain clauses.
• Eventually, the pre-censorship clause was removed, a Press Commissioner was appointed to provide accurate news to the press.

Opposition to the Vernacular Press Act:

• Indian nationalists strongly opposed the Vernacular Press Act.
• In Calcutta, a significant demonstration was organized in the Town Hall to protest against the Act.
• Various public bodies and the press actively campaigned against the legislation.
• The Act specifically targeted the Amrita Bazar Patrika, which published in both Bengali and English.
• The officials intended to take summary action against the newspaper, but the editors cleverly transformed it into an English newspaper overnight.

Repeal of the Vernacular Press Act:

• In 1882, the Vernacular Press Act was repealed by the Government of Lord Ripon.
• Lord Ripon, a nominee of the Liberal Government of Gladstone, believed that the circumstances justifying the Act of 1878 had changed.
• Ripon subjected the entire press to Section 124-A of the IPC, which imposed punishments for seditious writings.
• During Ripon's time, the press enjoyed more freedom, the law of sedition was not used as frequently.

Impact of Famine and Plague on Press Freedom:

• The famine of 1896-97 and the bubonic plague caused significant suffering in the Deccan, leading to discontent and instances of violence.
• The newspaper press played a role in political controversies during this period.
• By Act VI of 1898, Section 124 of the Penal Code was revised and expanded, a new Section 153 A was introduced.
• Section 505 of the Penal Code was also amended to penalize statements that could cause public mischief, disaffection among the armed forces, or induce offenses against the state.

Amendments to the Penal Code in 1898:

• In 1898, the Government amended Section 124A and introduced a new Section 153A to the Penal Code.
• These amendments made it a criminal offense to attempt to bring the Government of India into contempt or to create hatred among different classes, particularly between Englishmen in India.
• The amendments sparked widespread protests across the country.

Surendranath Banerjea's Imprisonment:

• Surendranath Banerjea was the first Indian journalist to be imprisoned in 1883 for performing his duty.
• His imprisonment provoked an immediate and angry reaction from the public.
• A spontaneous hartal occurred in Calcutta, students protested outside the courts.
• Demonstrations were held in various towns of Bengal and other cities such as Lahore,Amritsar,Agra,Faizabad, Poona.
• Calcutta witnessed large open-air meetings for the first time in response to this event.

Role of Tilak

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak is most frequently associated with the struggle for the freedom of the Press during the nationalist movement.
• In 1881, along with G.G. Agarkar, he founded the newspaper Kesar(in Marathi) and Mahratta(in English).
• In 1888, he took over the two papers and used their columns to spread discontent against British rule and to preach national resistance to it.
• In 1893, he started the practice of using the traditional religious Ganapati festival to propagate nationalist ideas through patriotic songs and speeches.
• In 1896, he started the Shivaji festival to stimulate nationalism among young Maharashtrians.
• In the same year, he organized an all-Maharashtra campaign for the boycott of foreign cloth in protest against the imposition of the excise duty on cotton.
• He was, perhaps the first among the national leaders to grasp the important role that the lower middle classes,peasants,artisans, workers could play in the national movement and, therefore, he saw the necessity of bringing them into the Congress fold.
• In pursuance of this objective, he initiated a no-tax Campaign in Maharashtra during 1896-97 with the help of the young workers of the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha.
• In 1897, plague broke out in Poona and the Government had to undertake severe measures of segregation and house searches.
• Tilak stayed in Poona, supported the Government and organized his own measures against the plague.
• Popular resentment against the official plague measures resulted in the assassination of Rand(the Chairman of the Plague Committee in Poona) and Lt. Ayerst by the Chaphekar brothers in 1898.
• Tilak was arrested under Section 124A of the Indian Penal Code on the charge of sedition, that is, spreading disaffection and hatred against the Government.
• The Judge passed a sentence of rigorous imprisonment for eighteen months.
• Tilak's imprisonment sparked widespread protests across the country, with many nationalist newspapers honoring him as a martyr in the struggle for press freedom.
• He quickly rose to prominence as a respected all-India leader, earning the title of Lokamanya, symbolizing the spirit of self-sacrifice.
• In response to the rise of individual terrorism after the Swadeshi movement, the government targeted newspapers and focused on Tilak, a key figure in the Boycott movement and militant politics.
• Tilak wrote articles about the 'Bomb' in India, condemning violence while criticizing the government for stifling dissent.
• On June 24, 1908, Tilak was arrested for sedition due to his articles and sentenced to six years' transportation to Mandalay, Burma.
• The public reacted strongly, with newspapers pledging to defend press freedom, markets in Bombay closing in protest, strikes by textile mills and railway workshops.
• The police clashed with striking workers, leading to the army's intervention, resulting in casualties.
• Lenin viewed this as the Indian working class's political emergence.
• Gandhiji, in 1922, was tried for sedition under the same section as Tilak and, when compared to Tilak, expressed pride in being associated with his name.
• The main difference was that Gandhiji pleaded guilty while Tilak did not.

The Newspapers (or Press) Act, 1908:

• Due to the discontent caused by Lord Curzon's unpopular actions, an Extremist Party emerged within the Indian National Congress, leading to violent protests. Newspapers at the time frequently criticized government policies.
• In response, the government implemented repressive measures, enacting the Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act in 1908.
• Provisions:
  • Magistrates were granted the authority to confiscate printing presses and related property of newspapers inciting murder or violence.
  • Local Governments could cancel declarations made by printers and publishers of offending newspapers under the Press and Registration of Books Act, 1867.
  • Editors and printers could appeal to the High Court within fifteen days of press confiscation orders.
• Under the 1908 Act, the government prosecuted nine newspapers and seized seven presses.
• Notable newspapers like Yugantar, Sandhya, Bandemataram ceased publication.

The Indian Press Act, 1910:

• The Indian Press Act of 1910 aimed to further empower the government, reminiscent of Lytton’s Press Act of 1878.
• Provisions:
  • Local Governments could require security deposits ranging from Rs. 500 to 2,000 during the registration of a printing press or newspaper.
  • Offending newspapers could face annulment of registration, confiscation of the press, all copies if they continued publishing objectionable content.
  • Aggrieved parties could appeal to a Special Tribunal of the High Court within two months.
  • Printers of newspapers had to provide two free copies of each issue to the government.
  • The Chief Customs Officer could detain imported packages with objectionable material.
• Under this Act, actions were taken against 991 printing presses and newspapers.
• Outcomes:
  • 286 were warned
  • 705 cases involved heavy security demands
  • Over $60,000 worth of security was forfeited concerning 300 newspapers.

Press and World War World War I

Freedom Struggle and the Press (1914-1947):

• During the period from 1914 to 1947, the freedom struggle in India gained momentum. The British Government sought the support of the press for its war efforts, but the press often aligned with the nationalists in their fight for freedom.
• At the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, the British government released nationalist leaders from prison to gain their support for the war. However, newspapers like The Madras Standard, New India, Bombay Chronicle, Maratha had differing opinions. Consequently, around 180 newspapers were asked to provide security deposits and promise support to the government in 1914-1915.
• Over time, the press softened its stance towards the British government. By 1918, the number of newspapers required to deposit security had decreased to 30 from 180 in 1914.
• After the war, during the 1920s, the British government took a rigid stance on granting freedom to India. Notable political leaders who initiated the non-cooperation movement received support from the press. Mahatma Gandhi expressed in his Young India on July 2, 1925, that he engaged in journalism not for its own sake but as a means to fulfill his life’s mission. In 1942, Gandhi reiterated the importance of journalism free from suppression.
• Amidst challenges, several newspapers were established by freedom fighters who acted as proprietor-editors. Examples include Gandhi’s Young India, Motilal Ghosh’s Amrita Bazar Patrika, Surendranath Banejee’s Bengalee, Kasturi Ranga Iyengar’s The Hindu.
• Defence of India Rules: During the First World War (1914-1918), the Defence of India Rules were introduced. The authorities used these powers not only for wartime purposes but also to suppress political agitation and public criticism.
• Press Committee, 1921 (Sapru Committee): In 1921, a Press Committee led by Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru was established to review press laws. The committee recommended the repeal of several press acts, including the Press Acts of 1908 and 1910, the Press and Registration of Books Act.
• Indian Press (Emergency Powers) Act, 1931: In response to the political movements of the 1930s and the Second Civil Disobedience Movement initiated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1930, the British Government enacted this act to tighten control over the Indian Press. The act reinstated provisions from the Press Act of 1910 and granted provincial governments broad powers to suppress propaganda related to the civil disobedience movement.
• The act aimed to punish expressions that incited or encouraged violent offences, including murder, or expressed approval of such offences or individuals associated with them.

Other provisions:

• Owners or keepers of printing presses were required to deposit a security amount.
• The government had the authority to forfeit the security of the press in certain cases.
• If a printer applied for a fresh declaration, a magistrate could require them to deposit a security ranging from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 10,000.
• If a newspaper published objectionable material even after the forfeiture of security and the deposit of a new security, the provincial government could forfeit the new security as well.
• Provisions applicable to keepers of printing presses also applied to publishers of newspapers.
• The penalty for printing objectionable material could be imprisonment for up to 6 months, with or without a fine.
• The Act also prohibited the publication of pictures and news about leaders of the Civil Disobedience Movement.

Actions taken under the Press Act 1931:

• The government took action against various newspapers under the Press Act 1931.
• The printers and publishers of the  Bombay Chronicle were asked to deposit Rs. 3,000 each for publishing an article by Horniman.
• The printer and publisher of the  Anand Bazar Patrika received a demand for Rs. 1,000 each.
• A security of Rs. 6,000 was demanded from the  Amrit Bazar Patrika, Rs. 10,000 were deposited by the Liberty of Calcutta.
• The  Free Press Journal deposited a security of Rs. 6,000, which was later forfeited by the Bombay Government.

Press Act of 1931 amplified in 1932:

• In 1932, the Press Act of 1931 was expanded and became the  Criminal Amendment Act of 1932.
• The Act was made comprehensive to include activities undermining the Government's authority.

Foreign Relations Act, 1932:

• The  Foreign Relations Act, 1932, aimed to penalize publications interfering with good relations between the Government and friendly foreign states.
• The Act was prompted by newspapers criticizing the administration in neighboring states.
• Documents with specified defamatory matter could be retained like seditious literature.

Indian States (Protection) Act, 1934:

• The  Indian States (Protection) Act, 1934, was enacted to prevent unreasonable attacks on the administration of Indian States.
• It empowered the Government to deal with bands or demonstrations organized to spread disaffection in Indian States.

Gandhiji's influence on journalism (1925-1946):

• During  1925-1946, Gandhiji and his ideology dominated Indian press, shaping opinion journalism with editorials.
• Proliferation of newspapers in various languages, especially  Hindi and English, occurred during this period.

Press during World War II (1939-45):

• Initially, the press supported the British government during  World War II.
• A conflict arose over war news reporting, leading to strong support for Gandhiji's civil disobedience movement.
• The government issued a notification prohibiting publications opposing the war effort.

Formation of All India Newspapers’ Editors Conference (AINEC):

• The  All India Newspapers’ Editors Conference (AINEC) was established to uphold journalism standards.
• AINEC aimed to safeguard freedom of news publication and represent the press in its relations with the public and government.

End of World War II and India's path to freedom:

• As  World War II ended, the prospect of freedom for India emerged.
• When  Mountbatten arrived in India, he revealed the plan to partition India into two independent nations.
• Newspapers reflected a tone of acquiescence and satisfaction with the impending freedom.

Defence of India Act, 1939:

• The aim of this Act was to give the government control over newspapers during World War II (1939-45).
• This Act took away the freedom of the Press.
• It strengthened pre-censorship, amended the Press Emergency Act and the Official Secrets Act, made it illegal to publish news about Congress activities.
• The special powers the Government had during the war ended in 1945.

The Press Enquiry Committee:

• In March 1947, the Government of India set up a Press Enquiry Committee to review press laws in light of the fundamental rights established by the Constituent Assembly of India.
• The Committee recommended repealing the Indian Emergency Powers Act of 1931, amending the Press and Registration of Books Act, modifying Sections 124 A and 153 A of the Indian Penal Code, repealing the Indian States (Protection against Disaffection) Act, 1932, the Indian States (Protection) Act, 1934.