Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Kashmir | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Kashmir (Zainul Abedin) 

Zain-ul Abedin's Reign in Kashmir (1420-1470):

• Zain-ul Abedin, also known as Bud Shah(the Great King) and the ‘Akbar of Kashmir’, is considered one of the greatest medieval kings of Kashmir.
• Jonaraja, a Kashmiri historian and Sanskrit poet, was a contemporary of Zain-ul Abedin. He wrote the dvitiya Rajatarangini, which continues Kalhana’s Rajatarangini and chronicles the kings of Kashmir up to Zain-ul Abedin's time.
• Jonaraja’s account is a primary source of information about Zain-ul Abedin, although he could not complete the history as he died in the 35th year of Zain-ul Abedin's reign. His pupil, Srivara, continued the history in his work.

Situation Before Zain-ul Abedin's Reign:

• Attack by Mongol Leader Dulucha (1320): The Mongol leader Dulucha attacked Kashmir, causing mass killings of men and enslaving women and children. Towns and villages were plundered, ravaged, and set on fire.
• Reign of Sultan Sikandar Shah (1389 – 1413): During Zain-ul Abedin's father's reign, there was severe persecution of the brahmans. Sikandar Shah ordered that all brahmans and learned Hindus either convert to Islam or leave the valley. Temples were destroyed, and idols of gold and silver were melted down for currency.

Reign of Zain-ul Abedin 

One hundred years after the Mongol invasion, the situation changed with the accession of Zainul Abidin (1420-70).

Administration:

Law and order: 

• When he ascended on the throne whole country in chaos. The administration had broken down. Corruption was at its peak and there was no semblance of any law and order. Criminals were ruling the roost. The first and foremost task for him was to bring some order to chaotic conditions. For this he motivated the old class of officials, the Pandits, to return to Kashmir giving them every facility and guaranteeing them religious and civil liberties. The King severely dealt with all corrupt officials to ensure corruption was completely rooted out.

Justice: 

• He also enacted a code of laws for his people, which were engraved on copper plates and displayed in public places and halls of justice. Sultan abhorred all killing and bloodshed and would avoid capital punishment wherever possible. His leniency and mild temper did not encourage any crime in the country because of his complete impartiality as a judge. According to Jonaraja, “Though the King was kind-hearted yet for the sake of his people he would not forgive even his son or minister or a friend if he were guilty. Mir Yahya, a great favourite of the King, while drunk, had killed his wife. Although he was very close to him, yet he was held guilty and executed.”

Welfare work: 

Sultan also maintained a number of charitable institutions and distributed free food among poor and infirm.

Relief work undertaken: 

• Towards the end of his reign a very severe famine occurred in Kashmir. This was caused by an early snowfall which destroyed the fully ripe paddy crop. Unfortunately, the succeeding winter was also very severe. A large number of people died. The King made all out efforts to alleviate the suffering of the people. After the restoration of normal conditions, the king punished all the black marketers and hoarders who had swindled the people during those hard times and the excess money charged from them was returned. To prevent the occurrence of flood (which devastated Kashmir after 2 yr of famine) in future: King decided to extend the city towards the high ground around Hari Parbat. He thus founded his new city which is to this day known as Naushahar.

Religion:

• Highly tolerant towards other religions.
• Transformed Kashmir into a real paradise where people of all religions and nationalities mingled together.
• His father Sikandar's policies caused the majority of Hindus to leave Kashmir.
• Before ascending the throne, Zain-ul-Abidin was popular with Hindus.
• He conciliated and brought back non-Muslims who had fled Kashmir.
• Provided freedom for those wanting to revert to Hinduism or who had pretended to be Muslims.
• Enacted laws for a just administration and trials according to their own laws and customs.
• Persecutionary measures by Sikandar and Suha Bhatt were revoked.
• Proclaimed a general toleration of all religions.
• Rebuilt many temples demolished in the previous reign.
• Granted permission to erect new temples.
• More than one hundred years later, noted by Abul Fazl, Kashmir had one hundred and fifty majestic temples.
• Restored Hindu libraries and grants.
• Penalized the killing of cows and abolished Zijiya.
• Withdrew the ban on sati to respect Hindu wishes.
• Forbade the killing of Nagas.
• Participated in the Annual Nagayatra Festival and fed thousands of ascetics and Brahmans.
• Built homes for widows of Brahmans killed in preceding reigns to expiate wrongs.
• Installed learned and experienced Hindus in high posts.
• Studied Persian, the new court language.
• Sriya Bhatt served as minister of justice and court physician.
• His first two queens were Hindus, daughters of the Raja of Jammu.
• They were the mothers of all of his four sons.

Architecture:

• Sultan was a great builder. Remains of his numerous towns, villages, canals, and bridges still exist and bear his name. His greatest achievement being Zaina Lanka—the artificial island in the Wulur lake on which he built his palace and a mosque. Sultan also founded the towns of Zaingir, Zainket and Zainpur.
• Canals: To utilise the fertile but dry soil of the karewas. Some of them are Utpalapur, Nandashaila, Bijbhira. This gave a tremendous boost to agricultural production in the valley.
• Bridges: He built many bridges including the first wooden bridge in Srinagar still known as Zainakadal (now replaced by a concrete bridge). One of his engineers, Damara Kach constructed a paved road which could be used even in rains.
• Palace: He was very fond of wooden architecture and built the palaces of Rajdan and Zain Dab in Zainagiri. These were very beautiful and artistic buildings.
• Rest houses: For travellers and laid many beautiful gardens, such as Baghi Zainagiri, Baghi Zaina Dab.

Literature and Learning

Under Zain-ul-Abidin's reign in Kashmir:

• Numerous schools, colleges, and a residential university were established.
• He aspired to make Kashmir a center of knowledge and learning.

Patronage of Scholars:

• Zain-ul-Abidin supported Sanskrit scholars like Jonaraja, Srivara, Soma Pandit, and Bodhi Bhatt.
• Soma Pandit authored the Zaina Charit, detailing Zain-ul-Abidin's life.
• Sanskrit texts, including the Mahabharata and Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, were translated into Persian during his reign.
• Persian and Arabic works were also translated into various languages.

Support for Persian and Arabic Scholars:

• He provided patronage to Persian and Arabic scholars, as well as vaids and hakims, including Shree Bhatt and Karpurra Bhatt.
• Many hakims from Central Asia were invited to his court.

Personal Accomplishments:

• Zain-ul-Abidin was a learned individual, proficient in Persian, Kashmiri, Sanskrit, and Tibetan languages.
• He was also a skilled poet.

Support for Students:

• The king facilitated education by providing teachers, books, housing, food, and financial support to students.
• He expanded the horizons of learning across various disciplines.

Military and Diplomacy

Sultan reorganized his army into a powerful force, which he used to reconquer Punjab and Western Tibet.

Unification of Kashmir:

• The Sultan was a skilled warrior who defeated the Mongol invasion of Ladakh, conquered the Baltistan region, and maintained control over Jammu, Rajauri, and other areas, effectively unifying the Kashmir kingdom.
• He maintained amicable relations with the rulers of territories over which he had no historical control, exchanging gifts and presents.
• He valued gifts of knowledge over material riches, expressing a preference for learned offerings.
• The Sultan fostered friendly relations with neighboring rulers from regions such as Khurasan,Turkistan,Egypt,Mecca, and Tibet, while also expanding the territory of the Kashmir kingdom.
• He engaged in diplomatic exchanges with governors from places like Egypt,Gwalior,Mecca,Bengal,Sindh,Gujarat, and other regions.

Economic Development

Employment:

• Recognizing the link between crime, unemployment, and poverty, measures were implemented to ensure suitable employment for all eligible individuals across various fields.

Agricultural Development:

• The Sultan played a significant role in advancing agricultural development in Kashmir by constructing dams and canals.
• During times of famine and natural disasters, he provided relief to peasants in the form of loans, grains, and fodder.

Land Assessment Revision:

• In response to a prolonged period of lawlessness and insecurity, which led to widespread uncultivated land, Zain-ul-Abidin's first major reform involved revising land assessments.
• He reduced land assessments to a quarter of the total produce in some areas and a seventh in others.

Farmer Protection:

• Farmers were safeguarded from the harassment of revenue officials through the enactment of a law prohibiting officials from accepting gifts from them.

Registration System:

• A system for the registration of property transactions was introduced to prevent fraudulent activities.
• Agricultural records were meticulously maintained.

Business Integrity and Price Regulation:

• Measures and weights were standardized, and artisans and traders were required to take oaths of honesty.
• Market control was established, with fixed prices for commodities.
• Traders and merchants were mandated to sell commodities at these fixed prices.
• The Sultan also subsidized the import of scarce commodities.

Currency Reform:

• The Sultan stabilized the currency, which had been devalued during previous reigns.
• He actively promoted trade and commerce within the country.

Patronage of Arts and Crafts:

• The Sultan offered strong support to foreign artists and craftsmen, attracting many to the Valley.
• Competent teachers and craftsmen were invited from Samarqand to train locals in various arts.
• Handicrafts such as carpet weaving, papier mache, silk, and paper making were introduced and perfected by Kashmiri artisans, gaining fame across Asia and Europe.
• Zain-ul-Abidin transformed Kashmir into a thriving center of industry, with advancements in glass making, silk, shawl and carpet weaving, wood carving, stonecutting, bottle-making, gold-beating, paper making, and book binding.
• He is credited with founding the Pashmina wool industry and promoting shawl-making, which became a hallmark of Kashmiri craftsmanship.
• The introduction of loom weaving and other arts and crafts, previously absent in Kashmir, significantly improved the industrial sector.
• The art of making bridges was also introduced by Persian artists during his reign.

Firework and Musket Making:

• The art of fireworks and musket making was developed during his reign, with a local named Habib being trained for this purpose.
• Thanks to the Sultan's efforts, many locals learned the art of fire making, enabling the local production of new weapons.

Music:

• The Kashmiris were introduced to Persian vocal and instrumental music, with instruments like rabab, sitar, duhal, sunray, and duff being brought in by immigrants.
• The Sultan had a deep appreciation for learning, music, and dance, and he received rare Sanskrit works on music from the Raja of Gwaliyar.

Drama and Dancing:

• The art of drama and dancing, which had declined due to the Puritanism of Sikander, was reintroduced by the Sultan.
• Zain-ul-Abidin ruled with a commitment to equity, justice, and the material prosperity of his people.
• He earned the title Budshah of Kashmir and is remembered with genuine respect for his significant contributions.