Portuguese Colonial Enterprise | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Vasco da Gama's Arrival in Calicut (1498):

• Vasco da Gama's landing at Calicut on the Malabar coast in 1498, with three ships and guided by a Gujarati pilot named Abdul Majid, marks the start of a new era in Asia-Europe relations.

Previous Attempts to Find Sea Routes:

• In post-Roman times, a Genoese named Ugolino di Vivaldo attempted to find a sea route to India in 1291 but was never heard from again.
• Portugal took the lead in the search for a sea route to India from 1418, under the guidance of Dom Henrique, also known as Henry the Navigator.
• Portugal explored the West Coast of Africa by sending ships annually, leading to the occupation of Africa up to the Congo River's mouth between 1443 and 1482. This brought trade in ivory, slaves, and gold dust, fueling Portugal's appetite for exploration.
• The rounding of Africa's southern tip by Magellan in 1487 opened the sea route to India, but it wasn't until ten years later that Vasco da Gama would take this route.

The Asian Oceanic Trade Network before the Coming of the Portuguese

Trade and Commerce in Asia and Europe Before Industrial Capitalism:

• Before the rise of industrial capitalism in the West, there was no fundamental difference in the internal structure of trade and commerce between Asia and Europe.
• Both European and Asian merchants sought exclusive information about the markets they operated in.
• Asian traders were less specialized compared to modern times and were flexible in their approach, willing to trade in any commodity expected to yield a good profit.

Big Merchants:

• Big merchants involved in emporia or long-distance trade could engage in both domestic and foreign trade. They could also act as bankers, money-lenders, and insurance agents.
• Some merchants owned their ships, although the transportation of goods over land and sea was often a specialized vocation.
• A definite pattern of trade between different regions and ports had developed due to factors like wind movements, ocean currents, and distances.
• Journeys from the Red Sea or Persian Gulf ports typically did not extend beyond Gujarat or the Malabar ports. Goods for Southeast Asian ports were shipped from Gujarat, Malabar, or the Coromandel coast.

Associations of Traders:

• Asian merchants, like their European counterparts, relied on family connections and associations based on community, interest, or region.
• For example, the Karimi association of merchants in Aden had activities extending to China, and South Indian merchants had their own trade associations like Maniraman.

Rich Merchants:

• Wealthy merchants in Asia included Vastupal and Tejpal in Gujarat, Chetti merchants in Tamil Nadu and Bengal, and Maraccars in Malabar.
• Asian trade was larger than European trade at the time, and some of the richest merchants were found in Asia.
• Despite this, some European scholars referred to Asian traders as peddlers.

Oriental Trade:

• Oriental trade was not limited to luxury goods. While trade with Europe involved luxury items like silk, jade, spices, and cloth, the Indian Ocean trade included basic necessities such as salt, sugar, grains, and clothing.
• Goods exchanged in the Indian Ocean region included spices, horses, silk, Chinese porcelain, incense, ivory, glass, jewelry, and slaves.
• Trade in necessities was crucial due to limited local production in areas like Southeast Asian Islands.

Climate and Geography:

• Climate and geography influenced trade by dictating the movement of goods and the direction of trade.
• For instance, ships from the Middle East reached Indian sea ports before the monsoon, and goods were transshipped to Southeast Asian countries or China.
• Malacca served as another point of transshipment.

Asian Ships and Nautical Techniques:

• Asian ships were capable of long-distance voyages. Indian ships initiated open sea voyages from Gujarat to Aden, across the Indian Ocean to Southeast Asia and East Africa.
• Indian tradition involved sewing ships instead of nailing them, with sewn ships being more flexible and easier to repair.
• By the time of Portuguese arrival, ships in the region were large, weighing 350 to 400 tonnes, with several masts. Chinese junks were the most advanced in ship construction.
• Nautical techniques included using stars for navigation, with the mariner's compass being useful for uncharted waters.

Policies and Conventions of Rulers:

• Traders were protected by rulers, and well-defined commercial laws were observed. Custom duties were kept within limits.
• Rulers did not dominate the seas or expand trade through armed intervention, though military operations on land considered commercial advantages.
• Armed ships for trade protection were not common in Asia, with the exception of Chola naval expeditions against Java-Sumatra.

Decline of Chinese and Yemeni Trade:

• By the late 15th century, Chinese traders withdrew under court orders, and Yemeni and Jewish merchants ceased operations, possibly due to Arab competition.
• Despite this, there was no commercial vacuum or Arab monopoly in trade.
• The Portuguese, initially aiming to capture trade in Asian goods to Europe, stayed to control trans-Asian trade through force.

Objectives of finding Sea Route and factors behind advent of Portuguese

Discovering a direct sea route from Europe to India was a significant goal for European nations in the late 15th century. This ambition was fueled by various factors, including the fall of Constantinople, the desire to bypass Arab and Turkish intermediaries in the spice trade, and the broader context of the Renaissance, which encouraged exploration and new ideas. The Portuguese, in particular, were motivated by both commercial and religious objectives, seeking to undermine Muslim control over trade and spread Christianity. The Pope's support and advancements in shipbuilding and navigation further spurred this quest for a direct sea route to India.

• Asia and Europe had trade relations since ancient times, but direct sea trade between them was a long-awaited goal. Greek historian Herodotus noted that Phoenicians had once sailed around Africa to reach India.
• The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 shifted trade dynamics. Goods from India reached Europe through Arab Muslim intermediaries, with the Red Sea trade route being a lucrative state monopoly for Islamic rulers.
• Europeans aimed to establish a direct sea route to India to break the Arab and Turkish monopoly on eastern goods, particularly spices.
• For the Portuguese, opening a sea route to India was not just about trade; it was also a religious mission. They saw it as a way to weaken the Muslims, especially the Arabs and Turks, who were seen as threats to Christianity.
• The Pope supported Portugal's quest for a sea route to India. In 1453, he issued a Bull granting Portugal the rights to any lands discovered beyond the Cape of Africa up to India, as long as the "heathens" there were converted to Christianity.
• The Renaissance, which promoted new ways of thinking and a spirit of adventure in 15th-century Europe, fueled interest in exploring new trade routes. This period also saw an increased interest in oriental trade, with many Genoese traders arriving in the Indian Ocean from the 13th century onwards.
• Economic advancements in Europe, such as increased land cultivation, improved farming techniques, and rising prosperity, led to a greater demand for oriental luxury goods and spices.
• Advancements in shipbuilding and navigation spurred adventurous sea voyages to unexplored regions in the East.
• The Genoese, rivals of the Venetians, also played a role in the search for a sea route to India. With the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, the Genoese lost access to their Black Sea ports, prompting them to assist Portugal and Spain in their explorations.
• Prince Henry of Portugal, known as the 'Navigator,' was particularly keen on finding an ocean route to India, aiming to bypass Muslim control over existing trade routes.

Arab and Turks didn’t hinder trade

Trade Dynamics between Europeans, Arabs, and Turks

• Europeans sought a direct sea-route to India not because of Arab and Turkish trade hindrances or excessive taxes.
• With the rise of Islam, Arabs became the main global traders, especially in long-distance trade.
• Arab merchants, sailors, and geographers enhanced sea-trade links between the Mediterranean and Asia, and within Asia between West Asia,India,East Africa,South-East Asia, and China.
• Turks were also supportive of trade. Goods from the Orient flowed through the Persian Gulf to the Levant and from the Red Sea to Cairo and Alexandria.
• Custom duties on these goods were a significant profit source for Arab and Turkish rulers, who had every reason to protect and cherish this trade.
• Despite the Pope's ban on trade with Muslims, Genoese and Venetian merchants thrived in the trade of oriental goods.
• Venetian merchants had a near monopoly on buying oriental goods in Egypt and the Levant and distributing them across Europe.
• Although Venetians and Turks engaged in naval battles, neither side let it interfere with their mutual trade, making them "complementary enemies."

Arrival of Vasco Da Gama

Vasco Da Gama’s Arrival in India (1498):

• Ships Arrival: Vasco Da Gama arrived in Calicut, India, in May 1498 with three ships, guided by a Gujarati pilot named Abdul Majid.
• Zamorin’s Reception: The Hindu ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin (Samuthiri), welcomed Da Gama, seeing the potential for trade due to Calicut’s position as an entrepot (a trading post).
• Trade Rights: Despite objections from Arab merchants, Da Gama secured a letter allowing the Portuguese to trade in spices and set up a factory (warehouse) on the coast.
• Conflict with Arab Merchants: The Portuguese aimed for a monopoly on the spice trade and claimed the right to search Arab ships, leading to conflicts.
• Massacre and Retaliation: A fight broke out, resulting in the massacre of Portuguese in their factory. The Portuguese retaliated by bombarding Calicut before withdrawing.
• Return to Portugal: Da Gama returned to Portugal after three months with a rich cargo, selling the merchandise at a huge profit. The spices were worth sixty times the cost of the expedition.
• Impact on Trade: The direct access to the pepper trade was crucial, as Europeans buying through Muslim middlemen would have paid ten times more for the same amount of pepper.
• Second Voyage (1502): Da Gama returned with a fleet of twenty-five vessels, demanding the expulsion of Muslim merchants from Calicut. When the Zamorin refused, Da Gama attacked Calicut.
• Establishment of Dominance: Following the attack, the Portuguese established forts in Cochin, Quilon, and other places to dominate Malabar trade, setting up a trading factory at Cannanore.
• Trade Philosophy Clash: The Portuguese approach combined trade with warfare, contrasting with the Asian convention of open trade without military force. This upset local traders and small states dependent on trade.
• Monopolization of Trade: The Portuguese aimed to monopolize the eastern trade by excluding competitors, especially Arabs, leading to the rise of Calicut, Cannanore, and Cochin as important Portuguese trade centers.
• Fortification of Trade Centers: Under the pretext of protecting their factories and trading activities, the Portuguese gradually fortified these centers.

Portuguese Governors in India

Francisco De Almeida:

• In 1505, the King of Portugal appointed a governor in India with a three-year mandate to establish four forts on the southwestern Indian coast: Anjediva Island, Cannanore, Cochin, and Quilon.
• Almeida aimed to make the Portuguese the dominant power in the Indian Ocean through the Blue Water Policy(cartaze system).
• He believed that naval strength was crucial for controlling India.
• In response to Portuguese expansion, a coalition led by the Sultan of Egypt and supported by local rulers challenged the Portuguese.
• After initial setbacks, the Portuguese achieved a decisive victory in 1509, establishing naval supremacy in the Indian Ocean.

Alfonso de Albuquerque:

• Albuquerque, succeeding Almeida, focused on expanding Portuguese power in the East by establishing forts and a strong navy.
• He emphasized the importance of forts for trade and diplomacy, arguing that a navy alone could not sustain dominion.
• Albuquerque's strategies included controlling major shipbuilding centers and introducing a permit system for other ships.
• He successfully captured Goa in 1510, marking the first European territorial acquisition in India since Alexander the Great.
• From Goa, the Portuguese expanded their influence with forts in Colombo,Achin, and Malacca, and established stations in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.
• Albuquerque faced challenges in capturing key forts like Diu and Cambay but laid a foundation for Portuguese dominance in the region.

Nino da Cunha:

• As governor from 1528 to 1538, Nino da Cunha shifted the Portuguese headquarters from Cochin to Goa.
• He played a role in the Portuguese expansion in Gujarat by securing the island of Bassein and promising a base in Diu.
• Da Cunha attempted to increase Portuguese influence in Bengal and faced challenges from the Ottoman Turks, who sought to counter Portuguese power in the Indian Ocean.
• The Portuguese and Ottomans engaged in conflicts over control in the region, with the Turks making significant naval efforts against the Portuguese.
• Despite the Ottoman threat, the Portuguese strengthened their position by securing territories like Daman and Diu.
• Eventually, the Portuguese and Ottomans reached an agreement in 1566 to share oriental trade and avoid conflict in the Arab seas.

Favourable Conditions for Portuguese

Background of Indian Powers in the 15th Century:

• In India, apart from Gujarat under Mahmud Begarha, the northern region was fragmented into many small powers.
• In the Deccan, the Bahmani Kingdom was disintegrating into smaller kingdoms.

Naval Strength and Trade Dominance:

• None of the Indian powers possessed a significant navy or considered developing naval strength.
• In the Far East, Chinese naval reach was limited by an imperial decree.
• Arab merchants and ship-owners, who dominated Indian Ocean trade, lacked the organization and unity of the Portuguese.
• The Portuguese had cannons on their ships, giving them an advantage.

Portuguese Dominance Explained:

• Despite being a small and economically backward state, Portugal dominated the Indian Ocean for over a century due to several factors:

Technological Comparison:

• Indo-Arab ships and Chinese junks could match Portuguese galleons and caravels in strength, tonnage, and sailing capacity.
• Indo-Arab ships were slower and clumsier due to heavy sails, while Portuguese ships were more maneuverable and had stronger hulls to withstand cannon fire.

Determination and Naval Conflict:

• The determination of Portuguese sailors played a crucial role in their success.
• Indian powers, accustomed to fighting pirates, were reluctant to engage in naval conflict without support from their rulers.

Reasons for Indian Powers’ Acceptance:

• Indian powers accepted Portuguese naval dominance because it did not threaten their political positions or adversely affect their income from overseas trade.
• Engaging in naval conflict with the Portuguese seemed difficult, uncertain of success, and unlikely to yield significant financial returns.

Religious Policy of the Portuguese

The Portuguese and Their Religious Agenda in India:

• The Portuguese came to India with a strong desire to spread Christianity and a determination to persecute all Muslims.
• Initially, the Portuguese were quite tolerant towards Hindus. However, after the introduction of the Inquisition in Goa, their attitude shifted, and Hindus also faced persecution.
• Despite their intolerance, the Jesuits made a positive impression at the court of Akbar, the Mughal emperor, who was interested in theological discussions.
• In September 1579, Akbar wrote to the authorities in Goa, requesting the presence of two learned priests.
• The Church authorities in Goa saw this as an opportunity to convert Akbar and his court to Christianity and eagerly accepted the invitation.
• Jesuit priests Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate arrived at Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 but returned in 1583, disappointing the Portuguese who hoped for Akbar's conversion.
• The Jesuit priests maintained contact with the Mughal emperors even during the reign of Jahangir.

Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals

In 1608, Captain William Hawkins arrived in Surat on his ship Hector, carrying a letter from King James I of England to the Mughal court of Jahangir, seeking permission to trade in India.

• The Portuguese tried to Hawkins from reaching the Mughal court but failed.
• Jahangir welcomed Hawkins in 1609, accepting the gifts he brought.
• Hawkins, fluent in Turkish, communicated with the emperor without an interpreter.
• Pleased with Hawkins, Jahangir appointed him as a Mansabdar of 400.
• The English trading privileges angered the Portuguese.
• After negotiations, a truce was reached between the Portuguese and the Mughal emperor.
• The Portuguese blocked English ships from entering Surat, forcing Hawkins to leave the Mughal court in 1611.
• In November 1612, the English ship Dragon, under Captain Best, defeated a Portuguese fleet in the naval Battle of Swally.
• Impressed by the English victory and lacking a strong navy, Jahangir favored the English.
• The Portuguese, through acts of piracy, clashed with the Mughal government.
• In 1613, the Portuguese angered Jahangir by seizing Mughal ships, capturing Muslims, and stealing cargo.
• Jahangir ordered compensation for the Mughal losses.

Under Shah Jahan, the Portuguese lost their privileges at the Mughal court.

• Capture of Hooghly: In 1579, the Portuguese established a trading post near Satgaon, Bengal, and over time, moved the trade to the new port of Hooghly.
• They monopolized salt production, enforced duties on tobacco, and engaged in a brutal slave trade, converting Hindu and Muslim children to Christianity.
• They even seized two slave girls from Mumtaz Mahal.
• On June 24, 1632, Shah Jahan ordered the siege of Hooghly, which lasted three months.
• The Mughals suffered 1,000 casualties but captured 400 Portuguese prisoners, offering them a choice between conversion to Islam or slavery.
• Persecution of Christians continued for a while before gradually diminishing.

Impact of the Portuguese on the Indian Trade

Portuguese Arrival in Indian Waters:

• The Portuguese arrival in Indian waters marked the end of unarmed open-sea trade and significantly impacted the Muslim monopoly over trade in the western Indian Ocean.
• They aimed to control the trade of eastern goods to Europe, asserting dominance over the trade routes.

Portuguese Demands and Armed Trade:

• From the moment the Portuguese reached Calicut, they demanded exclusive control over trade, seeking to oust all other merchants, both Indian and foreign.
• Portuguese ships, armed with weapons, began threatening other merchants, confiscating their goods and vessels, marking the beginning of armed trade in the region.

Cartaz system

In 1502, the Portuguese attempted to establish a monopoly over trade in Calicut, but the Zamorin, the king of Calicut, refused to comply.

• Vasco da Gama declared war on all ships in the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean.
• He introduced a system where ships carrying a signed cartaz were exempt from attack.
• The cartaz was a trading license first issued in 1502, aimed at controlling Portuguese trade.
• Trade in spices, drugs, dyes(including indigo), copper, silver, gold, arms, ammunition, and war horses became a Portuguese royal monopoly.
• Traders from other countries, including Portuguese private traders and royal officials, were prohibited from trading these commodities.
• Ships trading in other commodities needed a permit from Portuguese officials.
• The cartaz aimed to enforce Portuguese trade monopoly and ensure tax collection at Portuguese trading posts.
• Indian merchants, rulers, and all engaged in maritime trade were required to obtain cartaz from the Portuguese.
• Passes issued specifically prohibited loading of monopoly items and sought to control routes and destinations.
• The Portuguese attempted to direct all ships to pass by Goa and pay customs duty there.
• To enforce these rules, the Portuguese searched ships suspected of trading without cartaz or in banned commodities.
• Ships suspected of carrying contraband or refusing search could be sunk or captured, and crew treated as slaves.
• Local rulers like Akbar, Nilam Shah of Ahmednagar, Adil Shah of Bijapur, kings of Cochin, Zamorins of Calicut, and rulers of Cannanore purchased passes from the Portuguese for their ships.

Monopoly Trade

Portuguese Arrival and Changes in Trade Dynamics in India:

• When the Portuguese arrived in India, they found a bustling trade scene along the coastal regions, with merchants from various parts of the world engaged in commerce.
• According to Vasco da Gama in 1498, the port of Calicut was bustling with merchants from places such as Mecca, Tenasseri, Pegu, Ceylon, Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Ethiopia, Tunis, and various parts of India.
• Chinese merchants and those from the Red Sea regions also frequently visited Indian ports for trade.
• Before the Portuguese arrival, there was no record of any group of merchants claiming exclusive trading rights or setting aside certain commodities for specific traders.
• However, with the Portuguese, the situation changed dramatically. They pressured local kings to restrict trading rights for other merchants and declared certain commodities off-limits for others.
• The Portuguese sought a monopoly over trade, as reflected in the treaties they made with Indian rulers.
• They established fortresses at key locations, patrolled the waters with their ships, and required passes for other vessels to enforce their trade monopoly in Asian waters.

Trade of the Indian Rulers and Merchants

• The Portuguese attempts to establish a total monopoly did not completely uproot trade conducted by Indian rulers and merchants.
• The king of Cannanore, for example, obtained passes from the Portuguese to send his ships with goods to Cambay and Hormuz, despite the Portuguese claiming a monopoly on certain items like horses.
• Similarly, the kings of Tanur, Challe, and Calicut on the Malabar coast, as well as the nobles of Gujarat, continued their trade despite Portuguese restrictions.
• Local and foreign merchants settled in India carried on their trade with or without the cartaz(pass).
• The Portuguese realized they would lose more on land than gain at sea by enforcing their practices because traders affected at sea pressured their governments to retaliate against Portuguese trade.
• Policing trade along the vast coasts of Asia proved impossible for the Portuguese.
• Sea pirates targeting Portuguese ships were active in regions such as Oman, Malabar, and Southeast Asia, and Portuguese policies inadvertently encouraged and supported these pirates.
• Out of the estimated 60,000 quintals of pepper produced annually between Calicut and Cape Comorin, only 15,000 quintals were delivered to Portuguese factories; the rest was taken to other ports, which the Portuguese deemed illegal.
• The Portuguese were unwilling to raise the price of pepper agreed upon in 1503, leading producers to supply it to merchants who would send it to other trade centers without Portuguese knowledge.
• Arab and Gujarati traders found ways to circumvent the Portuguese trade embargo and regulations.
• Even Portuguese private traders were dissatisfied with the royal monopoly and the Cartaz, and royal officials with small salaries were often bribed by private traders.
• Many Portuguese officials engaged in private trade in various commodities without their government's knowledge.
• The Portuguese control over the Indian Ocean was incomplete due to their failure to capture Aden and control access to the Red Sea.
• The Turkish conquest of Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, along with their naval expansion in the eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea, hindered Portuguese efforts to effectively blockade Bab-el-Mendel, the entrance to the Persian Gulf.
• Portuguese monopoly was never fully effective in the Red Sea region.
• At the opposite end of the Indian Ocean, Portuguese control over the Spice Islands weakened.
• In the Spice Islands, the Portuguese faced a naval power willing to challenge their warships. Sultan Ali Mughayat Shah of Sumatra used traditional Javanese naval skills to defeat the Portuguese in several naval battles, capturing many guns to strengthen Acheh.
• He also sought military equipment from the Ottoman Sultan, who supplied bronze guns to help Acheh withstand a siege.
• This allowed Acheh to become a major spice export center, competing with Malacca, which was under Portuguese control.
• Arabs and Gujaratis, well-established in Malacca, used Acheh as a spice export center to the Red Sea via the Laccadives, bypassing Portuguese-controlled Malabar waters.

Factors limiting Portuguese success included:

• The structure of the Asian trade network.
• The strength and resourcefulness of Asian merchants, such as Arabs, Gujaratis, and Tamils, who were experienced in operating within the system.
• The naval and military power of Turkey and the ruler of north Sumatra.
• The internal limitations of the Portuguese and the functioning of the cartaz system in the Portuguese Empire of India (Estado da India).
• The complete control over oceanic trade using the Cartaz system was not very successful, and the rules regarding issuing the Cartaz to local traders had to be relaxed, including for Muslim traders.
• Trade in horses, which was exclusively in the hands of Muslims, was highly profitable and strategically important for various rulers.
• Muslims were also active in trading other commodities like textiles, glass, aromatics, and coffee, in which the Portuguese lacked the money and ships to engage.
• Thus, trade and profit considerations eventually outweighed religious biases.
• Portuguese efforts to exclude Muslims from the trade in oriental goods and establish a monopoly over West Asian trade had limited success.
• By the mid-sixteenth century, despite the large quantity of spices brought to Lisbon and marketed in Europe, mainly through Antwerp, the Black Sea ports, and the markets of the Levant and Egypt, were as well supplied with eastern goods—spices, dyes, and textiles—as before.
• The Portuguese used the Cartaz system to exert control over oceanic trade, though not completely, until the emergence of other European powers like the Dutch and English in the 17th century.

Limitation of Portugal:

Portuguese Trade in India and the Far East:

• Limited Resources: Portugal was a small country with limited financial resources, despite its rapid development in commerce. German and Italian merchants became the main agents for distributing eastern goods brought to Lisbon by the Portuguese.
• Export of Precious Metals: Due to limited demand in Asia for European goods, Portugal had to export precious metals, especially silver. Unlike Spain, Portugal lacked silver mines in America and relied on Italian and German financiers.
• Misguided Expectations: The Portuguese king's expectation that control of India's coastal trade would finance the export of eastern goods to Europe was unrealistic. Portuguese trade to Europe was limited to twelve to thirteen ships per year from Lisbon to India.
• Shift by the 16th Century: By the end of the 16th century, private Portuguese traders accounted for over 90 percent of trade to Europe. This trade included textiles and precious stones, financed through significant involvement in Asian trade.
• Redistributive Enterprise: The Portuguese government viewed its enterprise in the western Indian Ocean as a redistributive enterprise, mainly taxing the trade of others rather than expanding trade or opening new routes.
• Success in the Far East: The Portuguese had limited success in the Far East by taking over the export of textiles from the Coromandel Coast to the Indonesian Archipelago in exchange for spices. They traded spices to China for silk and took the silk to Japan in exchange for silver.
• Trade to South America: The Portuguese opened up trade to South America via the Philippines, where there was consistent demand for Indian cotton goods. Spanish galleons transported these textiles to South America in exchange for silver.
• Partnership with Asian Merchants: In the second half of the 16th century, a growing partnership emerged between Portuguese and Asian merchants. Many Arab and Gujarati merchants found it more profitable to load their goods on Portuguese ships, while Portuguese private traders or officials used Asian ships to evade royal monopolies.

Did Portuguese bring transparency in eastern trade?

Establishment of Transparency in Eastern Trade by the Portuguese:

• The Portuguese were believed to have introduced transparency in eastern trade by creating a network of factories or warehouses in different locations. This helped stabilize markets and prices, making them more transparent.
• However, modern research challenges this view.
• Price fluctuations were common in pre-modern trade.
• Indian and Arab merchants understood the difference between spot and future markets.
• For spot markets, they utilized warehouses to secure the best prices by buying during surplus and selling during shortages, with coffee being a prime example.
• For fine textiles and spices, prices and goods had to be predetermined, a process managed by Asian trade associations and family networks.
• The Portuguese attempted to control black pepper prices by pressuring local rulers in Malabar to supply pepper at fixed prices, allowing the rulers to source supplies through local traders or directly from cultivators.
• This policy was unpopular as the Portuguese used political pressure to lower prices paid to cultivators and to restrict competitors from bidding, making any increase in spice production of little benefit to the cultivators.

Significance of the Portuguese

1. Portuguese Impact on Political System in Asia:

   • The Portuguese had a minimal impact on the political system in Asia due to their small numbers.
   • They were unable to capture and maintain large territories on the mainland, so they wisely restricted their control to coastal forts and islands.
   • Goa became their seat of government, where a Governor-General and Council, including an Ecclesiastical Head, oversaw operations.
   • The Portuguese influenced small states like Calicut and Cochin to act as agents in the spice trade through threats and persuasion.
   • Due to their small population, the Portuguese encouraged mixed marriages, leading to the rise of a new Indo-Portuguese society.
   • The society was organized on racial lines, with people of pure Portuguese origin at the top and those of mixed origins at the bottom, with no political power for the latter.
   • The Church occasionally used “auto da fe” to eliminate heresy among Christians.
   • Overall, the Portuguese contribution to politics and world trade expansion was negligible.

2. Significance of the Portuguese Opening the Direct Sea Route to India:

   • The opening of the direct sea route by the Portuguese facilitated India’s closer integration with the growing world economy and contributed to the expansion of a market economy in India.
   • It marked the beginning of the European era in India and the emergence of foreign naval power, with the Portuguese being the first Europeans to arrive by sea in 1498.
   • The Portuguese established India’s trade links with Japan, the Philippines, and Latin America, paving the way for the arrival of other European powers such as Spain, the Dutch, the English, and the French.
   • They introduced their coins, such as the Cruzado, in Goa and surrounding areas, which were also accepted in parts of the Vijayanagar and Bahmani Kingdoms.

3. Introduction of Technology by the Portuguese:

   • The Portuguese were experts in advanced maritime techniques and initiated ship-building using western techniques in Cochin.
   • Their multi-decked ships were heavily constructed, allowing them to carry heavier armaments.
   • In sixteenth-century Malabar, they demonstrated military innovation with the use of body armor, matchlock men, and ship-launched guns.
   • Their practices may have influenced the Mughal use of field guns.
   • While they introduced technologies like printing and clocks in Goa, these did not gain acceptance on the mainland.
   • They were also known for building new roads and irrigation works.

4. Contribution in Agriculture:

   • The Portuguese introduced various products from the Latin American world, such as maize, potatoes, corn, pineapples, tobacco, chilies, and new breeds of fruits, significantly impacting the Indian rural economy.
   • Tobacco became a major trade item, and other plants like papaya, cashew, and guava were introduced.
   • The quality of mango and citrus fruits improved, and better plantation varieties of coconut were introduced, benefiting Indian peasants.

5. Cultural Contribution:

   • The missionaries and the Church played a role in promoting European art in India, including painting, carving, and sculpting, and were interpreters of European music.

6. Decline of the Portuguese:

   • By the 18th century, the Portuguese in India lost their commercial influence, with some resorting to trade, piracy, or robbery.
   • The emergence of powerful dynasties in Egypt, Persia, and North India, along with the rise of the Marathas, diminished local advantages for the Portuguese.
   • The Portuguese faced resentment due to their religious policies, especially the Jesuits’ conversion efforts, which alienated both Muslims and Hindus.
   • Their dishonest trade practices and notoriety as sea pirates contributed to their decline.
   • The discovery of Brazil diverted Portuguese colonizing efforts westward.
   • The union of Spain and Portugal in 1580-81 dragged Portugal into Spain’s conflicts with England and Holland, adversely affecting its trade monopoly in India.
   • As the knowledge of the sea route to India spread, particularly to the Dutch and English, competition intensified, leading to the Portuguese decline.
   • Ultimately, the Dutch and English, with greater resources and motivations for overseas expansion, surpassed the Portuguese, who lost ground to these emerging powers.
   • Goa, although remaining with the Portuguese, lost its significance as a port after the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, becoming less relevant regardless of its ownership.