Religious and Social Reform Movements | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Ramakrishna Movement and Vivekananda

• The Brahmo Samaj in Bengal, a reformist organization with a modernist approach, faced internal dissent and divisions after the 1870s, leading to its weakening.
• In the 1880s, the Ramakrishna-Vivekananda movement emerged as a response to the challenges faced by the Brahmo Samaj.
• While the Brahmo Samaj appealed to intellect and rationalism, the appeal of Ramakrishna Paramahansa was directed towards the mind and emotions.

Ramakrishna Paramhans (1834-86)

• Ramakrishna Paramahansa was a poor priest at the Kali temple in Dakshineswar near Calcutta.

• His thinking was deeply rooted in Indian thought and culture, but he also recognized the Truth in all religions. He believed that Krishna, Hari, Rama, Christ, Allah are different names for the same God.

• Untouched by Western rationalist education, he advocated for selfless devotion to God and a deep compassion for suffering humanity.

• Ramakrishna offered simple interpretations of Hinduism, which resonated with Western-educated Bengalees burdened by colonial jobs.

• He provided an escape into an inner world of bhakti, rejecting the values imposed by Western education and routine job life.

• Though his teachings rarely mentioned colonial rule, they rejected the disciplines of alien jobs, appealing to the oppressed middle class.

• Ramakrishna's form of religious eclecticism emphasized different paths to God, advocating for adherence to one's own path amidst rigid divisions.

• His approach was later used by his disciple Vivekananda to promote the superiority of Hinduism over other religions.

Swami Vivekananda (Narendranath Datta, 1862–1902) and Ramakrishna Mission

• Swami Vivekananda, also known as Narendranath Datta, played a crucial role in interpreting and simplifying the teachings of Ramakrishna for the modern audience.
• He infused a missionary zeal into the discourse, advocating social service as the best way to serve God, particularly through helping the poor.

Ramakrishna Mission: 

• Founded by Vivekananda in 1897 as a philanthropic organization inspired by Ramakrishna Paramhans.
• Aimed to protect India from Western materialistic influences, idealize Hinduism, promote the spiritual genius of India.
• Vivekananda envisioned Vedanta as a universal and grand "super-religion" for the world.
• Actively worked for social reforms, humanitarian service, education through a network of schools.
• Unlike the Arya Samaj, the Ramakrishna Mission recognized the value of image worship in fostering spiritual fervor.
• Since its inception, has been at the forefront of social reform in India, running charitable dispensaries and hospitals.
• Provided aid during natural calamities.
• Vivekananda emerged as a preacher of neo-Hinduism and made a significant impact at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893.
• Advocated for a balance between spiritualism and materialism.
• Envisioned a new culture blending Western materialism with Eastern spiritualism for global happiness.
• Condemned untouchability, the caste system, the religious sanctioning of the rich oppressing the poor.
• Believed that teaching religion to a starving person was an insult to God and humanity.
• Emphasized that the best worship of God is through serving humanity, giving Hinduism a new social purpose.
• Introduced the concept of "alternative manliness", combining Western masculinity with Brahmanic asceticism.
• Promoted physical culture while prioritizing spiritual power and self-discipline.
• Did not provide a political message, but instilled pride in India's past and confidence in its culture.
• Regarded as the spiritual father of the modern nationalist movement in Bengal.
• Describing Vivekananda as a revivalist overlooks the universal aspects of his teachings.
• While drawing inspiration from Vedantic tradition, his message was sometimes appropriated by revivalists.
• His emphasis on Hindu glory and patriotism resonated with popular sentiment.
• Criticisms of Hinduism's evils and his philanthropic activities were often overlooked.
• Became a "patron prophet" for extremist leaders and militant revolutionaries.
• Dreamed of a glorious Hindu India, despite misinterpretation of his messages.

Sikh and Parsi Reform Movements

Singh Sabha Movement:

• Founded in 1873 at Amritsar, the Singh Sabha Movement aimed to bring Western enlightenment through modern education to the Sikh community and counter the proselytizing efforts of Christian missionaries and Hindu revivalists.
• Promoted by an educated middle class connected with other socio-religious movements in Punjab, the Singh Sabha focused on social and religious reform through education.
• One of their major contributions was the Sikh Educational Conference, emphasizing that social evils among Sikhs were due to a lack of education.
• Khalsa College was established in Amritsar in 1892, a network of Khalsa schools and colleges was opened throughout Punjab.

Akali Movement:

• The Akali movement originated from the Singh Sabha movement in the late 19th century and began in October 1920 with the formation of the Siromoni Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC).
• It was initiated by Sikh reformers to purify religious places by removing corrupt practices.
• The movement aimed to free Sikh gurdwaras from the control of corrupt mahants who were supported by the government.
• The mahants had complicated rites and misused temple premises, often banning backward castes from entering holy shrines.
• Many gurdwaras were endowed with rich tax-free jagirs by Maharaj Ranjit Singh and other Sikh Chiefs.
• Followers of Sikhism organized a movement to liberate shrines from these hereditary mahants.
• In December 1920, the Akali Dal was formed as an auxiliary of the SGPC to coordinate efforts to take control of the shrines.
• In early 1921, the Akalis clashed with the government by taking control of the Golden Temple and appointing a new manager.
• The Akali movement became closely related to the Non-cooperation movement, with support from Gandhi and the Congress.
• After the victory in Amritsar, the Akali campaign spread to the countryside, gaining control of about one hundred shrines by January 1923.
• The movement crossed into militant anti-colonial campaigns at times, especially in Jaito.
• The government eventually compromised by passing the Gurdwara Reform Act of 1925, restoring control of the shrines to Sikh management.
• The Akali movement was a regional rather than a communal movement, with leaders playing a significant role in the national context.

Nirankari Movement: 

• A religious reform movement within Sikhism known as Nirankari, which means “Followers of the Formless One” (God) in Punjabi.
• Founder: Established by Baba Dyal Das in 1851 in northwest Punjab.
• Baba Dayal Das: The first reformer in Sikhism, who:
• Disapproved of worshipping tombs and graves.
• Stressed the formless nature of God (nirankar).
• Opposed idol worship of human gurus.
• Emphasized the importance of meditation.
• Ritual Standardization: The Nirankari movement standardized rituals related to birth, marriage, death based on Sikh scriptures.
• Anand Karaj: A simplified marriage system introduced by the movement, where marriage is performed in the presence of the Guru Granth Sahib, with four hymns sung by the priest.
• Disapproval of dowry, marriage procession, drinking, dancing, elaborate rituals.
• Leadership: After Baba Dayal Das, his son Baba Darbara Singh continued the teachings, followed by Rattan Chand (Baba Rathaji) after Darbara Singh's death.
• Guru Authority: Nirankaris, unlike mainstream Sikhs, accept the authority of a living guru and recognize Baba Dayal Das and his successors as gurus.
• Khalsa Militant Brotherhood: Nirankaris differ from other Sikhs by disapproving of the militant brotherhood of the Khalsa.
• Community Base: The movement primarily draws its following from urban trading communities.

Namdhari Movement:

• The Namdhari sect emphasizes the repetition of God's name (nam) as their sole religious practice, which is why they are called Namdharis.
• Aim: To establish purity in the Sikh religion.
• Commonly known as the Kuka Movement due to the ecstatic shrieks (Kuks) of its followers.
• Initially a religious movement, it evolved into a political one aimed at expelling the British.
• Founded in the 1840s in western Punjab, just before the British conquest, by Bhagat Jawahar Mal, also known as Sian Sahib.
• Headquarters were in Hazro, NWFP.
• The movement proclaimed Guru Gobind Singh as the only true Guru.
• Core tenets included the abolition of caste, restrictions on inter-marriages, promoting abstinence from meat, liquor, drugs.
• Followers wore turbans in a distinctive style.

Leadership:

• Balak Singh succeeded Sian Sahib and was followed by Baba Ram Singh.
• Baba Ram Singh militarized the movement, declared himself an incarnation of Guru Gobind Singh, introduced unique practices such as wearing only white handwoven cloth and frenzied chanting.
• Under his leadership, the Namdharis aimed for a resurgence of Sikh rule in Punjab.
• In January 1872, British police executed about 65 Namdharis, Ram Singh was exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1885, marking the end of the Kuka Movement.
• Namdharis identify as part of the Khalsa but differ from mainstream Sikhs in their equal reverence for the Adi Granth and the Dasam Granth.
• They believe in the continuation of the Guru lineage after Gobind Singh, maintain their own gurdwaras, practice strict vegetarianism.

Parsi Reform Movement

• The Parsi community could not remain unaffected by the wind of change that swept India.
• In 1851, a group of English-educated Parsis set up the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha or Religious Reform Association for the objective of “the regeneration of the social condition of the Parsis and the restoration of the Zoroastrian religion to its pristine purity.”
• It stood for the modernisation of Parsi religion and social customs.
• Naroaj Furdonji, Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Came, S.S. Bengalee were in the forefront of the movement.
• The newspaper Rast-Gofter (Truth-Teller) propagated the message of the Association.
• Parsi religious rituals and practices were reformed and Parsi creed redefined.
• In the field of social reform, attention was focused on the improvement of the lot of Parsi women in society like the removal of the purdah system, raising the age of marriage, education of women.
• Also struggled for uniform laws of inheritance and marriage for the Parsi community.
• Gradually, the Parsis emerged as the most Westernised section of Indian society.