Mughal Empire, First Phase: Babur | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Babur's Early Struggles and Shift to India:

• Babur became the ruler of Farghana, a small region in Transoxiana, in 1494 at the young age of twelve. However, his rise to power was not easy.
• He faced challenges from both the Mongol Khans and the Timurid princes, particularly his uncle Sultan Ahmad Mina of Samarqand.
• Babur also had to deal with a dissatisfied nobility.
• Despite these obstacles, he managed to capture Samarqand twice, in 1497 and 1500, but could not maintain control for long.
• After Shaibani Khan conquered Khorasan in 1507, Babur's position in Central Asia weakened, forcing him to turn his attention to Kabul, which was more favorable. He seized Kabul in 1504.
• Babur’s dream of ruling Central Asia persisted, and with the help of Shah Ismail Safavi, he temporarily regained Samarqand in 1511. However, Shah Ismail's defeat in 1512 and the rise of the Uzbegs compelled Babur to solidify his power in Kabul.
• By 1512, the situation in Central Asia led Babur to abandon his ambitions there and focus on India.

Other Factors Influencing Babur's Move to India:

• Rich Resources: India’s wealth was appealing compared to Afghanistan’s limited resources, as noted by Abul Fazl.
• Political Instability: The turmoil following Sikandar Lodi’s death indicated weakness in the Lodi Empire.
• Invitations: Babur received invitations from Rana Sanga and Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab, which fueled his ambitions.
• Timur’s Legacy: Babur was inspired by the legacy of Timur, which influenced his claim over western Punjab.

These factors combined to give Babur both the reasons and the opportunity to set his sights on India.

Political condition of India on the eve of Babur’s invasion

The 15th Century Indian Political Landscape:

The first half of the 15th century saw political instability due to the breakdown of the Tughluq dynasty. The subsequent Saiyyad (1414-1451) and Lodi (1451-1526) rulers struggled to manage the chaos. Nobles frequently rebelled, and political turmoil in the North-West weakened central authority.

In Central India, three kingdoms emerged:

• Gujarat: Ruled by Muzaffar Shah II.
• Malwa: Under the declining power of Sultan Mahmud Khalji II.
• Mewar: Led by the powerful Rana Sanga.

Rana Sanga of Mewar was the most dominant ruler, having gained control over eastern Malwa and competing with the Lodis for eastern Rajasthan and Malwa.

Malwa faced constant pressure from the Lodis, Mewar, and Gujarat due to its:

• Fertile land and elephant supply.
• Trade route to Gujarat sea-ports.
• Strategic position as a buffer for Gujarat and Mewar against the Lodis.

The Sultan of Malwa was ineffective, and his prime minister Medini Rai struggled to maintain order amid internal conflicts. Eventually, Rana Sanga expanded his influence over Malwa and Gujarat.

By the end of the 15th century, Rana Sanga had nearly complete control over Rajputana, including Ranthambhor and Chanderi.

In the south, powerful kingdoms like Vijaynagar and Bahmani thrived. In the east,Nusrat Shah ruled Bengal. During the later years of Ibrahim Lodi's reign, Afghan chieftains like Nasir Khan Lohani and Ma’ruf Farmuli established the separate kingdom of Jaunpur under Sultan Muhammad Shah.

Around Agra, numerous Afghan chieftaincies emerged, such as Hasan Khan in Mewat and Nizam Khan in Bayana.

On the eve of Babur’s invasion, there was a confederacy of Rajput principalities poised to take control of Hindustan. It is believed that without Babur's intervention, the Rajputs, led by Rana Sanga, would have established power in northern India.

Historians argue that the political divisions among regional states were religiously motivated, with Rana Sanga’s Rajput confederacy aiming to create a Hindu Empire. This view is supported by Babur's account in the Baburnama, where he describes Hindustan as being governed by five Muslim rulers (the Lodis, Gujarat, Malwa, Bahmani, and Bengal) and two pagans (Rana Sanga of Mewar and Vijaynagar).

Furthermore, the fathnama issued after the battle of Khanwa suggests that Rana Sanga's Rajput confederacy was driven by religious fervor to overthrow Islamic powers.

However, these interpretations have been challenged by historians. Babur did not imply that these powers were in conflict on religious grounds. In fact, he acknowledged that many rais and ranas were loyal to Islam. Notably, the confederacy included Muslim chieftains like Hasan Khan Mewati and Mahumud Khan Lodi, who supported Rana Sanga against Babur.

Interestingly, it was Sultan Mahmud, not Rana Sanga, who declared himself king of Delhi. Although Rana Sanga's power was undeniable, Babur was more concerned about the Afghan threat, suggesting that the notion of religious rivalry was not the primary factor at play.

Between 1517 and 1519, two significant events occurred that greatly impacted Indian history:

• The death of Afghan ruler Sikandar Lodi in Agra at the end of 1517 and the succession of Ibrahim Lodi.
• Babur's conquest of Bajaur and Bhira in the north-west Punjab frontier at the beginning of 1519.

Foundation of Mughal rule in India

Babur's Early Invasions:

• Before the famous Battle of Panipat in 1526, Babur made four attempts to invade India. These were tests of strength between the Mughal forces and the Lodi Empire.
• His first victory was capturing the fort of Bhira between 1519 and 1520. Bhira was an important gateway to Hindustan, located on the river Jhelum.
• Following Bhira, Babur also took Sialkot in 1520 and Lahore in 1524.

Claim and Invitation:

• Babur made a vague claim that regions once ruled by Timur should be handed over to him. He sent a message to Ibrahim Lodi to this effect.
• At the time, the governor of Lahore,Daulat Khan Lodi, invited Babur to invade India. He believed that Ibrahim Lodi was a tyrant and that many nobles were ready to support Babur.

Support from Rana Sanga:

• Babur also received a message from Rana Sanga, who suggested a plan where Babur would attack Delhi while Sanga would focus on Agra.

Motives Behind the Invitations:

• Those inviting Babur likely hoped he would withdraw after establishing a weak ruler in Delhi, similar to Timur's approach.
• They wanted to maintain their own power and control over the regions while extending their influence.

Deciding to Conquer India:

• The arrival of these invitations convinced Babur that the time was right for him to conquer India.

First Battle of Panipat (20 April,1526)

Background and Preparation:

• Babur solidified his position in Afghanistan by capturing Balkh from the Uzbeks and Qandahar from other local powers.
• With his rear and flank secure, Babur set out from Kabul in November 1525 to conquer Hindustan.

Conquest of Punjab:

• Babur marched through Sialkot without resistance and reached Lahore, where he encountered Daulat Khan Lodi and his son Ghazi Khan, who were besieging the city.
• Upon Babur's arrival, the besieging forces dispersed, allowing him to conquer Punjab.
• Babur then advanced towards Delhi, facing little opposition from Ibrahim Lodi, who was moving slowly.

Battle of Panipat:

• Babur and Ibrahim Lodi's forces met at the historic battlefield of Panipat. The battle lasted only a few hours and ended in Babur's favor.
• Despite being outnumbered, Babur's superior organization and strategy led to his victory. He estimated Lodi's forces at 100,000 men and 1,000 elephants, while he commanded only 12,000 horsemen.
• Babur carefully chose the battlefield to avoid being surrounded. He protected his flanks and used 700 carts to create a defensive line.

Tactics and Strategy:

• Babur employed the Ottoman (Rumi) method of warfare, using cannons and a strong defensive arrangement.
• He criticized Ibrahim Lodi's strategic abilities, stating that Lodi was unprepared and lacked military skill.
• Babur's tactics included flanking maneuvers and coordinated attacks from all sides, using archers and matchlockmen effectively.

Aftermath and Significance:

• The battle resulted in heavy casualties for the Afghan forces, with Babur reporting around 20,000 deaths.
• Babur's victory at Panipat marked the beginning of Mughal rule in India, though it was just the first of many battles needed to consolidate his power.
• The battle weakened the Lodis and opened up northern India to Babur, providing him with resources and treasure.
• Despite its military significance, the battle was not politically decisive, as Babur still faced challenges from other regional powers and within his own nobility.

Babur and the Rajput Kingdoms

Rana Sanga of Mewar was a formidable force.

• Babur blamed Rana Sanga in his memoir for not supporting him against Ibrahim Lodi at the battle of Panipat.
• There was an initial agreement between Babur and Rana Sanga to unite against Ibrahim Lodi, but Rana did not follow through.
• Rana Sanga anticipated that Babur would return to Kabul, allowing him to establish dominance in India.
• Babur's decision to stay in India was a significant setback for Rana's ambitions.
• To solidify his position in India, Babur knew he had to weaken Rana Sanga's power.
• Rana Sanga successfully formed a confederacy against Babur with the support of Afghan nobles.
• Leading Rajput Rajas from Rajasthan, including those from Harauti,Jalor,Sirohi,Dungarpur,Dhundhar, and Amber, joined forces with Rana Sanga.
• Rao Medini Rao of Chenderi in Malwa and Mahmud Lodi, the younger son of Sikandar Lodi, also aligned with the Rana.
• Hasan Khan Mewati of Mewat played a crucial role in forming the confederacy.
• Several other Afghan nobles joined Rana Sanga’s cause, with notable figures like Husain Khan Nuhani,Rustam Khan, and Qutub Khan gaining control over various territories.
• The pressure from the eastern Afghans forced Sultan  Muhammad Duldai to leave Qannauj and join Babur.
• The defeat of Babur’s commanders at Bayana and the praise for the Rajput army's valor demoralized Babur's forces.
• Ferishta and Badauni's accounts suggested a strong sense of defeatism within Babur's camp.
• Babur managed to rally his troops with an impassioned speech, framing the war against Rana Sanga as a jihad.
• He renounced wine, broke flasks of Ghazni wine, and promised to remit the tamgha (toll) on all Muslims if victorious.
• Babur labeled the opposing Afghans as kafirs and mulhids, indicating the political and religious connotations of these terms.
• After the battle of Khanwa, Babur took on the title of ghazi.
• The conflict was not merely a religious struggle between Hindus and Muslims, nor a Rajput attempt at dominance, but a Rajput-Afghan alliance aimed at expelling Babur and reinstating the Lodi empire.
• Battle of Khanwa (16 March, 1527): Babur fortified his position near Sikri at Khanwa, organizing his army along Ottoman lines.
• He utilized artillery effectively, and Rana Sanga suffered severe injuries, leading to a significant Rajput loss.
• Rana's delay in action provided Babur with the opportunity to strengthen his position.
• Babur's disciplined army, mobile cavalry, and artillery were decisive in the battle, securing his position in Gangetic doab.
• Battle of Chanderi: Despite the setback at Khanwa, Medini Rai in Malwa was still a force to reckon with.
• Medini Rai, a chief noble of Mahmud II of Malwa, had been granted Malwa by Rana Sanga.
• Babur faced little difficulty in defeating Medini Rai at Chanderi in 1528, shattering resistance across Rajputana.
• However, Babur still had to contend with the Afghans following this victory.

Babur and the Afghan Chieftains

Afghan Power Struggles in India (1527-1530):

• After the Afghans surrendered Delhi, they remained powerful in the east, particularly in Bihar and parts of Jaunpur, where the Nuhani Afghans, led by Sultan Muhammad Nuhani, were dominant.
• The Afghans of Chunar,Jaunpur, and Awadh were unwilling to cooperate with the Nuhanis against the Mughals and surrendered to Humayun in 1527.
• Following Sultan Muhammad Nuhani's death in 1528, the Nuhani faction became disjointed as his son Jalal Khan was still a minor.
• The power vacuum was filled by Prince Mahmud Lodi, son of Sikandar Lodi and brother of Ibrahim Lodi, who united the Afghans under his leadership.
• Nusrat Shah of Bengal, although publicly friendly with Babur, secretly took hostile actions against him, viewing the Nuhani kingdom as a buffer against the Mughals.
• Babur, recognizing the threat, mobilized forces at Ghagra and defeated Nusrat Shah's army in 1529, ending the Afghan-Nusrat coalition.
• After this victory, the Afghans were demoralized, and Babur solidified his position in Delhi before his death on December 29, 1530.
• Babur's establishment of the Mughal Empire was significant, as his victories at Panipat and Khanwa shifted the regional balance of power, paving the way for an all-India empire, though the Afghans and Rajputs were not completely defeated until later.

Significance of Babur’s advent into India

Babur's Death and Legacy:

• Babur passed away in Agra on December 30, 1530, after a brief illness.
• His health had been declining for years due to challenging military campaigns and the hot Indian climate.
• Despite missing Afghanistan and finding some aspects of India unappealing, Babur considered India his home.
• Those among his begs who did not share this view were allowed to leave.

Inclusion of Afghanistan in Babur's Empire:

• Babur's control over Afghanistan, particularly Kabul and Qandahar, was significant.
• Historically, Afghanistan was part of India and was crucial for safeguarding India from invasions.
• By maintaining control over Afghanistan, Babur protected India from foreign attacks for 200 years.

India's Role in Central Asian Politics:

• Babur's control over Afghanistan positioned India as a player in Central Asian politics.
• Babur and his successors engaged diplomatically with powerful rulers in Turan,Iran, and Ottoman Turkey.
• This marked a new phase in India's foreign policy and strategic outlook.

Economic Impact of Babur's Rule:

• Control over Kabul and Qandahar boosted India's foreign trade.
• Babur highlighted these regions as vital trade hubs between Hindustan and Khurasan.
• The inclusion of these areas in Babur's empire enhanced India's share in trans-Asian trade.

Emergence of a New Indian Empire:

• Through his victories over Ibrahim Lodi and Rana Sanga, Babur laid the foundation for a new Indian empire.
• He disrupted the existing balance of power that had developed in the 15th century.

Introduction of Gunpowder Technology:

• Babur is credited with introducing cannons and muskets to India.
• While gunpowder was of Chinese origin, its use in artillery was influenced by European practices.
• Babur employed Ottoman master gunners and used artillery in key battles, strengthening the position of large states against local rulers.

New Military Tactics:

• Babur introduced innovative military tactics from the Ottomans and Uzbeks, such as using carts for protection and flanking parties.
• His victories were attributed not only to new weapons but also to his generalship, organization, and strategic planning.

Restoration of Crown Prestige:

• The arrival of the Mughals helped restore the prestige of the Crown in India.
• Unlike Sikandar Lodi and Ibrahim Lodi, Babur, as a descendant of Chingiz and Timur, had high personal prestige and the divine mandate to rule.
• He emphasized the importance of the Crown and maintained strict court etiquette.

Liberal Religious Policy:

• Babur, a devout Muslim, was not narrowly sectarian in his religious policies.
• He balanced religious observance with a degree of freedom in personal religious practices.
• While he declared some campaigns as jihad, his actions towards Hindus and local rulers showed a pragmatic approach.

Cultural Contributions:

• Babur was influenced by Persian culture, which shaped his actions and those of his successors.
• His Memoirs provide insights into contemporary affairs, nature, and social life.
• Babur's writings, including poetry and his memoirs, contributed to the literary tradition and showcased his interest in art and culture.

How does Tuzuk-i-Babri testify that Babar had been a cultured man? 

Introduction to Tuzuk-i-Baburi:

• Tuzuk-i-Baburi is the autobiography of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in India.
• Babur originally wrote it in Turkish. Later, on the instruction of Akbar, it was translated into Persian as 'Baburnamah' by Mirza Abdur-Rahim in 1589.
• The Tuzuk-i-Baburi offers a detailed account of Babur's experiences, the world he lived in, and the people he met.

Evidence of Babur's Culture in Tuzuk-i-Baburi:

• Literary Taste: Babur was a skilled writer and poet, known for his beautiful verses. The Tuzuk-i-Baburi is praised for its elegant and pure language, making it a pleasurable read.
• Interest in Architecture: He constructed many buildings in Samarqand and attempted similar projects in India. However, due to the unstable nature of his empire, he had limited time. He also disapproved of the non-symmetrical buildings in India.
• Interest in Music, Dance, and Painting: Babur had a deep interest in music and even wrote books on the subject. His gatherings often included music, dance, humor, and poetry recitals. He also had an interest in painting.
• Love for Nature: Babur had a profound appreciation for nature, finding joy in the streams, meadows, and pastures of his homeland. He was captivated by springs, lakes, plants, flowers, and fruits. His love for nature also contributed to his poetic talent. In his writings about India, he described its mountains, rivers, jungles, streams, and various foods, providing detailed accounts of its flora and fauna.
• Truthfulness: Babur was candid about his successes and failures, earning the reader's respect. He recorded historical events with great accuracy and honesty, without any hypocrisy. His memoirs are considered highly reliable, reflecting his honesty and competence as a chronicler.
• Liberal Nature: Babur exhibited less sectarianism and religious bigotry, though he did show ruthlessness at times, including the destruction of temples on several occasions.

Administration under Babur:

• Babur had limited time and inclination to establish a new administrative system in India.
• He aimed to continue the existing systems of administration from Afghanistan and India.
• Day-to-day administration was largely entrusted to his begs, who were assigned large tracts of land.
• These begs were responsible for administration, land revenue collection, and troop maintenance for state service within their assigned tracts.