Islamic Revivalism in India: Faraizi, Wahabi, Deoband, Ahmedia and Aligarh Movement | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Faraizi Movement

• The Faraizi Movement was a religious reform movement in the nineteenth century, initiated by Haji Shariatullah in East Bengal, primarily among the peasant population. It was an indigenous movement aimed at purifying Islam and addressing social injustices.
• The term Faraizi comes from the Arabic word 'farz', which means obligatory duties prescribed by Allah.
• During British rule, the Faraizi Movement gained significant popularity among Muslim peasants in various districts of Bengal.
• The movement aimed to cleanse Islam by eliminating un-Islamic practices and emphasizing the Quran as the sole spiritual authority.
• It also expressed concerns about British influence on Muslims and advocated for social justice.

Haji Shariatullah

• Haji Shariatullah, the founder of the Faraizi Movement, was born in 1781 in Bahadurpur village, Faridpur district, Bangladesh.
• He traveled to Mecca to study the Quran and Islamic theology, where he encountered Hanafi ideals. After spending twenty years abroad mastering Islamic scholarship, he returned home in 1818.
• Upon his return, Haji Shariatullah initiated the Faraizi Movement to guide Bengal Muslims in adhering to the true principles of Islam.
• He rejected superstitions and corrupt practices within Islam and viewed British rule in Bengal as detrimental to the religious life of Muslims.
• Although the movement began as a religious effort, it evolved into a political one, with Haji Shariatullah declaring British-ruled India as "Dar-ul-Harb," or a land unsuitable for pious Muslims.
• He mobilized discontented peasants and craftsmen, emphasizing social roots and uniting the rural Muslim poor of East Bengal.
• The movement targeted zamindars and indigo planters, with a particular focus on Hindu landlords, while also challenging Muslim landlords.
• Haji Shariatullah's efforts led to a significant awakening among Bengali Muslims, inspiring millions of poor farmers, artisans, jobless weavers to join the movement.
• His advocacy against exploiting zamindars and indigo planters resonated widely, with strong support in regions such as Barisal, Mymensingh, Dhaka, Faridpur.

Dudu Mian

• In 1837, after the death of Shariat Ullah, his son  Muhammad Mushin, also known as Dudu Mian(1819-1860), took charge of the rebellion. Dudu Mian was a skilled and politically aware organizer.
• Dudu Mian transformed the Faraizi movement from a socio-religious focus to a socio-economic and political one.
• He urged his followers to avoid activities against Islam and mobilized the peasantry around an egalitarian ideology.
• Dudu Mian aimed to organize peasants against zamindars(landlords), asserting that Allah was the true owner of the land, thus zamindars had no right to collect taxes.
• He called for tax boycotts against zamindars, abstaining from farming indigo for planters, withdrawing support for the British.
• Dudu Mian established his headquarters at Bahadurpur and led his followers in raids on zamindar and indigo planter treasuries and offices.
• Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, there were violent clashes between Dudu Mian's followers and zamindars and planters.
• A unique aspect of Dudu Mian's Faraizi Movement was the establishment of their own law courts as alternatives to British judicial institutions.
• These courts, led by a Munshi who oversaw every two or three villages, became popular among Muslim peasants as they provided a means of redress against zamindar oppression.
• Dudu Mian built a network of village organizations across Bengal, including Faridpur, Bakarganj, Dacca, Pabna, Tippera,  Jessore, Noakhali.
• He divided Bengal into zones or halkas, each led by a Caliph, who organized farmers, resisted zamindar and indigo planter exploitation, raised funds for the movement.
• The Caliph also promoted sectarian interests and collected taxes to support the movement's expenses.

Spread of the Faraizi Rebellion:

• The Faraizi movement gradually expanded from Dhaka and Faridpur to Bakarganj,Comilla,Mymensingh,Jessore,Khulna, large parts of South 24-Parganas.
• For over 25 years, Dudu Mian remained a controversial figure in Eastern Bengal, becoming a household name.
• Zamindars and indigo planters collaborated with the government to suppress Dudu Mian.
• Between 1838 and 1847, he was imprisoned at least four times but was released due to lack of evidence.
• During the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, he was imprisoned in Alipore Jail as a precaution.
• Dudhu Miyan died in Dhaka in 1862, but the movement persisted.
• His son, Noah Mian, continued his work but shifted focus from anti-British activities to religious ones.
• In the absence of a strong center, the movement became sporadic, with isolated actions against landlords, especially in traditional Faraizi centers.
• After Dudu Mian’s death in 1862, there was a temporary lull in the movement, but it was revitalized on a different scale by his successor Naya Mian in the 1870s.
• Eventually, this movement merged into the Wahabi Movement.

Analysis of the Faraizi Movement

• The Faraizi Movement eventually weakened and transformed into a religious sect.
• Although rooted in agrarian issues, the movement's demands were framed in religious terms.
• Dudu Mian played a crucial role in raising awareness among peasants, uniting them against zamindars and indigo planters.
• The movement struggled due to a lack of political awareness among its leaders, anti-Hindu sentiments, religious narrow-mindedness, forced conversions, extortion, poor leadership.

The Wahabi Movement

Wahabi Movement Overview:

• The Wahabi movement aimed to purify Islam by removing un-Islamic practices that had infiltrated Muslim society over time.
• It posed a significant challenge to British rule in India from the 1830s to the 1860s.

Saiyid Ahmad of Rai Bareilly (1786-1831):

• Founder of the Wahabi Movement in India.
• Inspired by Abdul Wahab of Arabia and the teachings of Shah Waliullah and his son Abdul Aziz.

Shah Waliullah's Contributions:

• Promoted harmony among the four schools of Muslim jurisprudence.
• Emphasized individual conscience in interpreting religious texts.

Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmed Barelvi:

• Popularized Shah Waliullah's teachings with a political focus.
• Declared India as Dar-ul-harb (land of non-believers) and aimed to transform it into dar-ul-Islam (land of Islam).

Saiyid Ahmad's Activities:

• Initially preached in Rohilkhand, later moved to Patna in 1822.
• Condemned innovations in Islam and advocated a return to the practices of the Prophet Muhammad's time.
• Believed in the need for a strong leader, organization, and safe territory for Jihad.

Objectives and Actions:

• Aimed to restore Muslim power by ousting Sikhs in Punjab and British in Bengal.
• Introduced the concept of Hijrat (migration) and gave the movement a military character.
• Captured Peshawar and issued coins in his name.

Organization and Spread:

• Established a countrywide organization with secret codes.
• Strong presence in Sithana and Patna, with missions in various parts of India.
• Wahabism spread rapidly in Bihar, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and North-Western India.

Conflicts and Death:

• Captured Peshawar in 1830, lost it to the Sikhs the following year.
• Syed Ahmad died in the Battle of Balakot (1831) against the Sikhs.

Post-Saiyid Ahmad Era:

• After his death, Patna became the movement's center.
• Followers were known as Maulvis.

Initial Targets and Shift:

• Initially targeted the Sikh kingdom in Punjab.
• Jihad declared against Sikhs, pamphlets issued against them.
• After the Sikh defeat, the focus shifted to the English dominion in India.

Suppression of the Wahabi Movement:

• The Wahabis were active in spreading anti-British sentiments during the Revolt of 1857.
• The British saw the Wahabis, based in Sithana, as a potential threat, especially with the possibility of conflicts with Afghanistan or Russia.
• In the 1860s, the British launched military operations against the Wahabi base in Sithana and initiated sedition court cases against Wahabi leaders in India.
• General Bakht Khan, a leader during the 1857 Revolt in Delhi, was also a Wahabi.
• The British military force suppressed the Wahabi movement in the 1870s.
• Between 1863 and 1865, key leaders of the Wahabi movement were arrested through a series of trials.
• The Ambala trial of 1864 and the Patna trial of 1865 were interconnected.
• Although the movement lost its strength, Wahabi extremists continued to assist frontier hill tribes against the British in the 1880s and 1890s.

Movement of Titu Mir (Mir Nassir Ali): Tariqah-i-Muhammadiya (Wahabi Movement):

• In the 1820s and 1830s, a religious movement called Tariqah-i-Muhammadiya emerged in Bengal under the leadership of Titu Mir (also known as Syed Mir Nisar Ali). This movement was an independent offshoot of the Wahabi movement.
• Titu Mir started his career as a hired muscleman for local zamindars but later went to Mecca, where he was initiated by Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi.
• In 1827, Titu Mir began preaching the Wahabi doctrine in Barasat and later expanded his efforts to a 250-square-mile area in the northern part of the 24 Parganas district.
• His followers primarily consisted of poor Muslim peasants and weavers, who were organized into a community with distinctive dress and beard as markers of identity. Titu Mir advocated for a change in dress to distinguish Muslims from Hindus and opposed customs and beliefs borrowed from popular Hinduism.
• The self-assertion of the peasantry challenged established power relations, leading local zamindars to impose measures such as a tax on beards to curb the movement.
• Titu Mir and his followers came into conflict with Hindu landlords, British indigo planters, eventually the British administration. He proclaimed the end of British rule and stormed areas like Nadia, Faridpur, 24 Parganas.
• His lieutenant Ghulam Masum played an important role in these efforts. Titu Mir and his followers defied existing authorities, established their own regime, collected taxes, instilled fear in the region.
• To suppress the movement, the British government mobilized the army and artillery, ultimately destroying Titu's bamboo fortress on November 16, 1831. Titu Mir was killed in the British action.
• Other notable Wahabi leaders included Vilayat Ali,Inayat Ali,Shah Md. Hussain, Farhat Hussain.

Analysis of Wahabi Movement:

• The Wahabi movement was led by Muslims, for Muslims, with the goal of establishing Dar-ul-Islam in India.
• Throughout its course, the movement did not take on the character of a nationalist movement.
• Instead, it left a legacy of isolationist and separatist tendencies among Indian Muslims.

Deoband Movement

The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband Movement.

Overview of the Deoband Movement

• The Deoband Movement was led by the orthodox section of Muslim ulema.
• It was a revivalist movementwith two main objectives:
  • To promote the pure teachings of the Koran and Hadis among Muslims.
  • To maintain the spirit of jihad against foreign rulers.
• The movement aimed to uplift Muslims through religious education and revive classical Islam.

Founding of the Deoband School:

• The Deoband School was established in 1866 by ulema leaders Muhammad Qasim Wanotavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi.
• Located in the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh, the school aimed to train religious leaders for the Muslim community.

Curriculum and Focus:

• The curriculum of the Deoband School excluded English education and Western culture.
• Instruction was focused on original Islamic teachings, with an emphasis on moral and religious regeneration of the Muslim community.
• Unlike the Aligarh Movement, which promoted welfare through Western education and British support, the Deoband School prepared students for preaching Islamic faith rather than government jobs or worldly careers.

Attraction and Influence:

• The Deoband School attracted students from all over India and neighboring Muslim countries.

Political Stance:

• Politically, the Deoband School welcomed the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885.
• In 1888, the Deoband ulema issued a fatwa against Syed Ahmed Khan’s organizations, including the United Patriotic Association and the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Association.
• Critics note that the Deoband ulema’s support was more about opposing Sir Syed Ahmed’s activities than a positive political philosophy.

Leadership and Synthesis of Ideas:

• Under the leadership of Mahmud-ul-Hasan, the Deoband School sought to integrate religious ideas with national aspirations.
• The Jamiat-ul-Ulema, shaped by Hasan’s ideas, focused on protecting the religious and political rights of Muslims within the framework of Indian unity and national objectives.

Ahmedia Movement or Quadiani Movement

• Started around 1899 in the town of Qadian (Gurdaspur, Punjab) under the leadership of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian (1835–1908).
• In 1891, he claimed to be a prophet, revivalist (mujaddid), and the messiah (mahdi) expected by Muslims to appear at the end times to peacefully ensure the final triumph of Islam.
• Ahmadi thought emphasizes that Islam is the final revelation for humanity, as given to Muhammad, and the need to restore it to its original intent and purity.
• It highlights the humanitarian and universal aspects of Islam.
• The movement also views technological progress as part of God's purpose and deserving of religious acknowledgment.
• It was strictly apolitical and upheld conservative social morals.
• Mirza Ghulam Ahmad's claim to prophecy challenged the orthodox Islamic belief that Muhammad was the last prophet.
• The Indian orthodox Muslim community was upset by Ahmad's strong allegiance to the British colonial rulers during a time of growing nationalist sentiment.
• The Ahmadi community in colonial India was often more educated and prosperous than other Muslim groups.
• These religious, cultural, and political factors led to the targeting of Ahmadis by Muslim political groups after India's independence.
• Especially in Pakistan, where they were declared a non-Muslim minority by law in 1974.
• After the death of Ahmad's successor, Maulana Nur ad-Din, in 1914, the movement split into two factions:
  (i) Qadiani (Ahmadiyya) Movement: Affirming Ahmad's messianic status.
  (ii) Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement: Viewing Ahmad as a reformer while adhering to mainstream Islamic beliefs, including the finality of Muhammad as the last prophet.

Aligarh Movement

Legacy of the Revolt of 1857 and Changing Perceptions:

• The Revolt of 1857 left a legacy of suspicion, with official narratives portraying Muslims as the primary conspirators. This perception was reinforced by the Wahabi political activities of the 1860s and 1870s.
• However, the 1870s saw a shift in perspective. W.W. Hunter's book The Indian Musalman advocated for reconciling and rallying Muslims around the British government through thoughtful concessions.
• Syed Ahmed Khan, leading a segment of the Muslim community, was open to this official patronage. He believed that the community would lose its rightful place in administrative services by isolating itself and resisting modern ideas.

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan: Life and Contributions:

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898), born in Delhi into a respected Muslim family, received traditional Muslim education.
• During the Revolt of 1857, he was serving in the judicial system of the British East India Company and remained loyal to the government. He retired from service in 1876.
• In 1860, he authored The Loyal Muhammadans of India. By 1878, he was a member of the Imperial Legislative Council, his loyalty was recognized with a knighthood in 1888.
• His reform programs encompassed educational,religious, political aspects.

Modernization and Social Reform Efforts:

• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan aimed to modernize the Muslim outlook by reconciling traditional beliefs with modern scientific thought and encouraging acceptance of government services.
• He successfully urged Muslims to embrace modernity and to serve under the British government.
• He also addressed social issues within the Muslim community, condemning practices like piri and muridi, where pirs and faqirs claimed to pass on mystic knowledge to their disciples.
• Additionally, he criticized the institution of slavery as un-Islamic.
• His progressive ideas were disseminated through his Urdu magazine Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq, focused on the improvement of manners and morals.

Progressive Islamic Interpretations:

• In his work Commentaries on the Quran, Sir Syed critiqued traditional interpretations of the Quran, offering his views based on contemporary rationalism and scientific understanding.
• He emphasized the importance of studying the Quran and interpreting it liberally, aligning its teachings with modern scientific discoveries.
• He argued that God's word should be understood in light of the observable natural laws, advocating for free inquiry and rational interpretation of religious texts.

Advancements in Education:

• Sir Syed's educational initiatives focused on spreading Western and scientific education among the Muslim population.
• He founded the Scientific Society in 1864 to promote Western sciences through Urdu translations.
• In 1875, he established the Anglo-Mohammadan Oriental College in Aligarh, offering instruction in both Western arts and sciences as well as Muslim religion.
• Aligarh soon became a hub for the religious and cultural revival of the Muslim community, laying the groundwork for the Muslim University established in 1920.
• He also initiated the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Education Conference in 1886 to encourage Western education among Muslims.

Political philosophy of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan

David Lelyveld's Insights on Political Philosophy:

• According to David Lelyveld, the political philosophy of a certain figure centered around the idea that Indian society was a collection of conflicting groups unified by a higher authority. This authority had shifted from the Mughal emperor to Queen Victoria, who oversaw a hierarchy of different social units.
• The Muslims, seen as a former ruling class, were granted a unique position of power and authority in this new British Empire. However, to maintain this status, they needed to educate themselves and acquire new skills to navigate the colonial system effectively.
• His conception of being a Muslim did not conflict with being an Indian. However, he did not view India as a nation-state based on individual citizenship. Instead, he saw it as a federation of qaums(ethnic communities) rooted in common descent. These groups were to have cultural autonomy and share power based on their ancestry and inherited subculture, rather than individual achievements.
• Though a minority, the Muslims, as an ex-ruling class, were envisioned to have greater representation in power-sharing and a unique relationship with the political system. This perspective set him apart from the Indian National Congress, which viewed India as a nation-state based on individual citizens' rights. This difference in views led to a divergence of Muslim politics from the Congress and mainstream nationalism.
• He opposed the Ilbert Bill and famously stated that "Hindus and Muslims are the two eyes of India."
• Notable figures associated with the Aligarh Movement and connected to him include Altaf Hussain Hali,Maulavi Nazir Ahmad, Maulavi Shibli Numani.

Aligarh Movement in Opposition to Congress:

• Sir Sayyid's Aligarh College aimed to foster a sense of community among Muslim students and reach a broader audience within the north Indian Muslim population.
• The college's curriculum combined Muslim theology with 19th-century European empiricism, preparing students for the advantages of British rule.
• While Aligarh students did not have a significant knowledge advantage, they gained a sense of solidarity from the institution.
• Sir Sayyid's message was further spread through the Mohammedan Educational Conference, which met annually since 1886, in direct opposition to the Congress.
• Sir Sayyid viewed the Congress as an attempt to dominate the Muslim minority and was particularly concerned about the cow-killing riots of 1893 and the Congress's silence on the issue.
• Alongside Raja Sheo Prasad of Banaras, Sir Sayyid opposed the Indian National Congress.
• The internal challenges at Aligarh College may have pushed Sir Sayyid towards a more radical anti-Congress stance.
• Theodore Beck, the European principal of Aligarh College, played a significant role in opposing the Congress and advocating for government support for Muslims.
• In 1893, the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental Defence Association was established to counter the Congress's growing influence and organize Muslim public opinion against it.
• Thus, the Aligarh movement, under Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan and his college, developed in opposition to Congress-led nationalism and in loyalty to the British Raj, viewed as a legitimate successor to the Mughal Empire.

Limitations of Sayyid Ahmad Khan's Leadership and the Need for a Political Organization:

• Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan's leadership was not universally accepted among the North Indian Muslim community.
• The ulama disagreed with his emphasis on Westernization, fearing it undermined their authority in Muslim society. In contrast to his modern approach, they promoted Islamic universalism and exclusivism.
• Critics like Jamaluddin al-Afghani opposed Sir Sayyid's loyalty to the British, mocking his Western imitations and focus on specific class interests.
• By the late 1880s, many North Indian Muslims were leaning towards the Congress Party, with Badruddin Tyabji becoming its first Muslim president in 1887.
• In the late 1890s, Urdu newspapers in Punjab claimed that the Aligarh School did not represent Indian Muslims.
• After Sir Sayyid's death in 1898, the younger generation at Aligarh felt disorganized and unable to effectively express their needs. They began to shift away from the established Aligarh political tradition.
• Unlike earlier politicians who distanced themselves from the ulama in favor of Western-educated elites, younger leaders like Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali were inspired by ulama such as Maulana Abdul Bari and emphasized Islam as a unifying force, leading to the Islamization of Muslim politics.
• The younger leaders also moved away from the loyalist stance of Sayyid Ahmed, partly due to Lieutenant Governor Macdonnell's unfavorable policies towards Muslims in the United Provinces. Allegations of his preference for Hindus, reflected in the Nagri Resolution of April 18, 1900, which recognized the Nagri script along with Persian for official use in courts, contributed to this shift.
• The Nagri Resolution triggered the Hindi-Urdu controversy, making language a matter of community pride and a rallying point. This period also saw the demand for an all-India Muslim University as a cultural hub for pan-Indian Islam.
• While the older generation, like Mohsin-ul-Mulk, withdrew from this agitation due to Macdonnell's threats to cut grants for Aligarh College, the younger generation persisted in protesting against discriminatory government policies.
• They soon recognized the flaws in Sayyid Ahmed's loyalist approach, with some contemplating joining the Congress Party.
• The older leaders and the colonial administration felt an urgent need for a political organization to mobilize Muslims against the Congress and establish an independent political platform, as many Muslim leaders from Bengal, Punjab, Bombay were unwilling to follow Aligarh's lead.

Simla Deputation:

• Since 1899, Bengali Muslims had been growing closer to their north Indian co-religionists, especially after the Mohammedan Educational Conference was held in Calcutta. However, the events of 1906 brought them even closer, though not without some tensions.
• In eastern Bengal, the resignation of Lt. Governor Bampfylde Fuller, who was known for his pro-partition and pro-Muslim stance, along with the possibility of reversing the partition, caused panic among the Bengal Muslim leadership.
• The Secretary of State Morley's budget speech in 1906 suggested that representative government would be introduced in India, alarming Muslim leaders who feared being dominated by the Hindu majority in the new self-governing bodies, especially with the Congress Party's growing influence.
• This situation set the stage for the Simla deputation on October 1, 1906, to Governor-General Lord Minto.
• For a long time, it was believed that the deputation was a “command performance” orchestrated by the British, particularly by W.A.J. Archbald, the European principal of the Aligarh College.
• However, recent analyses suggest that the initiative came from Aligarh veterans, like Mohsin-ul-Mulk, who aimed to address the concerns of younger Muslims, hoping for the inclusion of Bengal Muslims in the deputation.
• In the end, the grievances of the Bengal Muslims were set aside due to their divisive nature, no Bengali joined the Simla deputation.
• The petition drafted by the Aligarh leaders reflected only their interests, portraying Muslims as a separate community with distinct political needs, thus justifying their claim to minority rights and proportional representation in public bodies.
• The viceroy listened patiently to the deputation and assured the East Bengalees that their rights would be protected.

 Birth of All India Muslim League:

• The success of the Simla deputation significantly boosted Muslim political morale, but younger Muslims felt the need for more than just verbal assurances.
• There was a growing desire among them for a separate political organization with a religious focus, shifting from the concept of qaum(community based on common descent) to ummah(community based on shared faith).
• At Simla, thirty-five delegates decided to organize the community for independent political action, aiming for recognition as “a nation within a nation,” as stated by Aga Khan, the delegation leader.
• The next Mohammedan Educational Conference was set for December 1906 in Dacca, amidst rising nationalist agitation against the partition of Bengal.
• Nawab Salimullah, a leader of east Bengali Muslims, proposed forming a political party for Muslims, aligning with the conference's discussions.
• On 30 December 1906, during the Dacca Educational Conference, the All India Muslim League was launched, aiming to safeguard Muslim political rights, promote loyalty to the British, foster inter-communal amity.
• Despite initial resistance from Congress-supporting Muslims, the majority of educated Muslims chose a different political path.
• For the first few years, the League functioned as part of the Mohammedan Educational Conference until they separated around 1910.
• Some scholars view the League as a continuation of the Aligarh movement, while others, like Jayanti Maitra, see it as a response to the political climate among Bengali Muslims.
• The Nawab of Dacca believed the League represented an evolution from Aligarh, aiming to enhance public opportunities for educated Muslims.
• Initially, the League was dominated by UP Muslims, with figures like Viqar-ul-Mulk and Mohsin-a-Mulk shaping its constitution, which favored “men of property and influence,” excluding many younger, more radical members.
• Provincial Muslim Leagues were established between 1907 and 1909, each with the freedom to create their own constitutions, leading to diverse political stances compared to the central organization.
• The League's London branch, led by Syed Amir Ali, influenced the Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909, which provided reserved seats for Muslims in legislatures, reinforcing their minority status and separate political identity.
• The League's role in this process marked the evolution of Muslim identity from minority status to eventual nationhood, a complex and lengthy journey.