Growth of Bhakti, Bhakti Movement | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• Bhakti, as a religious concept, signifies the act of devotional surrender to a personally envisioned Supreme God with the aim of achieving salvation.
• The core ideology of bhakti revolves around the relationship between the soul and the Supreme Being.
• While the bhakti movement became a prominent aspect of Hinduism in the 14th and 15th centuries, its roots can be traced back to ancient Indian religious traditions.
• The origin of bhakti has been linked to both Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions of ancient India, as well as to various scriptures such as the Gita.
• The term "bhakti" in Pali literature dates back to the 8th century B.C.

References in Ancient Texts:

• Bhakti is mentioned in the Vedas, Upanishads, epics, and Puranas.
• Texts like the Bhagavad Gita, pre-Buddhist texts, and the Chhandogya Upanishad highlight the emergence of devotion to a single personal God.

Vedanta Philosophy:

• Vedanta philosophy explores the concepts of the Creator (God or Brahman) and the creation (soul or atma).
• It also includes the doctrine of rebirth, transmigration of the soul, and the theory of karma (deeds).
• The ultimate goal of the soul is to reunite with God.
• Salvation is achieved when the soul escapes rebirth due to karma and merges with the universal soul (God).
• Salvation is referred to as mukti, moksha, or nirvana.

Means of Attaining Salvation in Vedanta:

• Gyan marga: Focuses on acquiring true knowledge or enlightenment.
• Karma marga: Emphasizes selfless or disinterested action.
• Bhakti marga: Stresses devotional worship of God.

Evolution of Bhakti:

• In South India, between the 7th and 10th centuries, bhakti transitioned from a religious doctrine to a popular movement emphasizing religious equality and broad social participation.
• From the time of the Bhagavad Gita to the 13th century, the concept of bhakti evolved through a synthesis of traditional Upanishadic philosophy and the desire for a personal God.
• Monotheism and pantheism were intertwined with the warmth of bhakti in the Bhagavad Gita.

Bhakti and Vedic Intellectualism:

• Up to the 13th century, bhakti largely remained within the realm of Vedic intellectualism.
• Caste division is acknowledged in the Bhagavad Gita, reflecting this intellectual framework.

Bhakti movement in south India

Tamil devotional cult 

The Bhakti Cult in the Tamil Region:

• The Bhakti cult in the Tamil region emerged as a response to the increasing influence of Buddhism and Jainism.
• This movement spread across South India for approximately three centuries, being popularized by Saiva saints known as Nayanars and Vaishnava saints called Alvars.
• The Nayanar and Alvar saints preached the importance of personal devotion to God as a means of achieving salvation.
• During the period between the seventh and tenth centuries, these saints spread the doctrine of Bhakti among various sections of society, regardless of caste and gender.
• Some of these saints hailed from lower castes, and some were women.
• They conveyed their messages of love and personal devotion to God throughout South India using local languages.

Characteristics of the Bhakti Movement:

• For the first time, the bhakti movement gained a popular base. What contributed to its widespread appeal?
• Saint-poets preached bhakti with intense emotion and promoted religious egalitarianism.
• They disregarded rituals and traveled extensively, singing, dancing, and advocating for their beliefs.
• The Alvar and Nayanar saints used the Tamil language, rather than Sanskrit, to preach and compose devotional songs.
• These poet-saints challenged the authority of orthodox Brahmins by making bhakti accessible to all, regardless of caste or gender.
• They succeeded in championing the cause of religious equality.
• Brahmins were compelled to accept the right of the “low-caste” to preach, access bhakti as a mode of worship, and even to study the Vedas.
• The South Indian bhakti saints were critical of Buddhists and Jains, who held a privileged status at the courts of South Indian kings during that time.
• They succeeded in winning over many adherents of Buddhism and Jainism, both of which had become rigid and formal religions.
• However, there were some limitations as well:
• The bhakti movement did not consciously oppose Brahmanism or the varna and caste systems at the societal level.
• Since the ideological and social foundations of the caste system were not questioned by the South Indian saint-poets, the bhakti movement ultimately strengthened rather than weakened it.
• There was no elimination of Brahmanical rituals such as the worship of idols, recitation of Vedic mantras, and pilgrimages to sacred places, despite the emphasis on bhakti as the superior mode of worship.
• The main targets of criticism were the Buddhists and Jains, not the Brahmins.
• As a result, Brahmin-dominated temples played a significant role in the growth of the South Indian bhakti movement.
• Ultimately, after reaching its climax in the tenth century, the movement was gradually assimilated into conventional Brahmanical religion.

Other Tamil devotional cults are Shaiva Siddhanta and Siddhas. 

Shaiva Siddhanta:

• Accepts the authority of the Vedas.
• Considers God,Universe, and Soul as eternal.
• The Tamil compendium of devotional songs known as Tirumurai, the Shaiva Agamas, and Siddhanta Shastras form the scriptural canon of Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta.

Siddhas:

• Follow unorthodox sadhana to attain salvation through yogic practices and tapasya.

Shankaracharya

He has been regarded as the founding father of the bhakti movement and a proponent of the Advaita (non-dualism) doctrine.

• He preached the Upanishadic doctrine of salvation through Knowledge (Gyan Marga).
• Although he emphasized Gyan Marga as the means of attaining salvation, it was not practical for the average person.
• Subsequent preachers of Vedanta philosophy replaced Gyan Marga with Bhakti Marga.
• When the popularity of the bhakti movement in South India waned, brilliant Vaishnava Brahman scholars (acharyas) defended the doctrine of bhakti at the philosophical level.

Ramanuja (11th century):

• Ramanuja (1017-1137), an early exponent of the bhakti movement, hailed from modern Andhra Pradesh.
• He was a great Vaishnava teacher who proposed Vishisht Advaita (qualified monism).
• While a monist, he believed that God is not exempt from form and qualities.
• According to him, the individual soul, created by God from His own essence, returns to its maker and lives with Him forever, yet remains distinct.
• He emphasized that salvation can be achieved solely through the bhakti marga.
• Ramanuja redefined Vedanta philosophy by prioritizing devotional worship to a personal God as the supreme reality.
• He argued that just as people need God, God also needs people.
• He advocated that yoga was the best mystical training and that the relationship between the devotee and God is that of a fragment to the totality.
• Prapti (attainment) was the second means of salvation.
• He established a careful balance between orthodox Brahmanism and popular bhakti, making it accessible to all.
• Ramanuja did not support the idea of “lower” castes having restricted access to the Vedas.
• He promoted bhakti as a mode of worship accessible to all, including Sudras and even outcastes.
• While advocating bhakti, he disregarded caste distinctions and aimed to eliminate untouchability.

Madhava (thirteenth century):

• Madhvacharya, born on the west coast of Karnataka state, was the chief proponent of the Dvaita (dualism) school of Vedanta.
• He termed his philosophy Tattvavada, meaning “arguments from a realist viewpoint.”
• Madhva’s Dvaita school posits that Vishnu as God, who is also Hari, Krishna, Vasudeva, and Narayana, can only be known through the proper samanvaya (connection) and pramana of the Vedic scriptural teachings.
• Similar to Ramanuja, he did not challenge the orthodox Brahmanical restriction of Vedic study by the Sudras.
• Madhva believed that bhakti offered an alternative avenue of worship for the Sudras.

Bhakti movement in north india

Spread of Bhakti from South to North India:

• There were numerous points of contact between South and North India, but the spread of bhakti ideas from the South to the North took a significant amount of time.

Socio-religious Movements during the Sultanate Period:

• Many popular socio-religious movements emerged in North, East, and West India during the Sultanate period.

Relation between South Indian bhakti movement and north Indian bhakti movement and among themselves

Similarities:

• Two common features shared by all these movements: bhakti and religious equality.
• Most bhakti movements during the Sultanate period are linked to South Indian Vaishnava acharyas, suggesting they were a continuation or revival of earlier bhakti traditions.
• There were philosophical and ideological connections between these movements, either through contact or diffusion. For example:
• Discipleship Links: Leaders of non-conformist monotheistic movements in North India are believed to have been disciples of Ramananda, who was connected to Ramanuja’s philosophical order.
• Chaitanya’s Influence: Chaitanya, a key figure in the Vaishnava movement in Bengal, was part of the Madhava philosophical school but also linked to Nimbarka’s emphasis on Krishna bhakti.
• Despite their egalitarian stance in the religious sphere, these movements did not challenge the caste system, the authority of Brahmanical scriptures, or Brahmanical privileges, except for some popular monotheistic movements.
• Similar to South Indian bhakti, many later Vaishnava movements were eventually absorbed into Brahmanical religion, although this process involved significant changes in Brahmanical practices.
• Both South and North Indian bhakti movements contributed to the development of modern vernacular languages.
• The Bhagavata Purana serves as a crucial link for most Vaishnava bhakti movements of the medieval period. Composed around the 9th century, this Vaishnavite text emphasizes bhakti towards Vishnu in his various incarnations.
• While the Bhagavata Purana accepts the orthodox Brahmanical theory of the varna system, it does not uphold the superiority of Brahmans based solely on status or birth. For the Bhagavata, bhakti is the primary criterion.

Differences

Regional Identity and Socio-Historical Contexts:

• Each movement had its own regional identity and was shaped by distinct historical and cultural contexts.

Differences in Monotheistic and Vaishnava Bhakti:

• Non-conformist monotheistic bhakti movements differed significantly from vaishnava bhakti traditions.
• Kabir’s concept of bhakti was distinct from that of vaishnava saints like Chaitanya and Mirabai.
• Monotheistic saints rejected the idea of incarnations and dismissed Brahmanical and scriptural authority.

Influence of the Bhagavata Purana:

• The Bhagavata Purana tradition did not directly influence the monotheistic movement.
• Many saints associated with these movements were illiterate and lacked direct access to texts like the Bhagavata and other scriptures.

Diversity within Vaishnava Bhakti

• Even within the Vaishnava movement, there were notable differences.
• Maharashtra bhakti was distinct from Bengal Vaishnavism and the North Indian bhakti of figures like Ramanand,Vallabha,Surdas, and Tulsidas.

Later Developments and Sect Formation:

• Over time, the vaishnava bhakti movement evolved into various sects.
• Disputes among these sects sometimes escalated into violence.
• Some groups, like the Sikhs, developed into organized religious communities, while others evolved into various sects or panths.

Common Origins of Popular Monotheistic and Vaishnava Bhakti Movements:

• Both the Popular Monotheistic Movement and the Vaishnava Bhakti Movement emerged in Northern India around the same time, following the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and the advent of Islam in the region.
• Despite their simultaneous rise, the causes and sources of these movements were quite different.
• The Popular Monotheistic movements reached their peak during the Sultanate period, while Vaishnava movements, which began in the same period, achieved their climax during the Mughal period.

Factors leading to the Rise of the Bhakti Movement

These movements influenced large number of people during 14th-17th centuries in North India. These emerged due to a number of political, socio-economic and religious factors. 

Political Factors: 

Loss of Power and Influence by Brahmans

• The Turkish conquests marked the end of the Rajput-Brahman dominance in India.
• Before the Turkish invasion, the Rajput-Brahman alliance was strong and opposed to any heterodox movements.
• The nathpanthis were among the first to benefit from the weakening of this alliance and reached their peak during the early Sultanate period.
• The advent of Islam dealt a setback to the Brahmans, paving the way for the rise of non-conformist movements with anti-caste and anti-Brahmanical ideologies.
• The Brahmans faced both material and ideological setbacks:
• Ideologically: Brahmans had convinced people that the images and idols in temples were not just symbols of God but were gods themselves, possessing divine power that could be influenced by the Brahmans.
• Materially: The Turks stripped the Brahmans of their temple wealth and state patronage.

Socio-Economic Factors:

Bhakti Movements and Feudalism in Medieval India

• Some argue that the bhakti movements in medieval India were expressions of the common people's feelings against feudal oppression.
• According to this view, the poetry of bhakti saints like Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya, and Tulsidas contains elements of revolutionary opposition to feudalism.
• As a result, these movements are sometimes seen as India's equivalent to the Protestant Reformation in Europe.

Differences Between Bhakti Movements and European Protestant Reformation

1. The poetry of bhakti saints does not indicate that they represented the class interests of peasants against the feudal state.
2. Vaishnava bhakti saints distanced themselves from orthodox Brahmanical order by advocating for bhakti and religious equality, but they largely adhered to many core principles of orthodox Brahmanism.
3. Radical monotheistic saints rejected orthodox Brahmanical religion but did not call for the overthrow of the state or the ruling class.
4. The European Protestant Reformation was a more significant social upheaval associated with the decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism.

Bhakti Saints and the Common People

• Despite these differences, bhakti saints were not indifferent to the living conditions of the people.
• They consistently sought to connect with and empathize with the sufferings of the common people.

Economic and Social Changes:

Popularity of the Monotheistic Movement

• Soci o-economic changes due to the Turkish conquest of Northern India played a crucial role in the popularity of the monotheistic movement.

Expansion of Urban Artisans

• The Turkish ruling class, unlike the Rajputs, resided in towns.
• The extraction of large agricultural surpluses wealth to the ruling class.
• This wealth led to increased demand for manufactured goods, luxuries, and other necessities.
• In response, many new techniques and crafts were introduced, resulting in the expansion of the class of urban artisans during the 13th and 14th centuries.

Attraction to Monotheistic Movement

• Many urban artisans were drawn to the monotheistic movement due to their dissatisfaction with their low position in the brahmanical hierarchy.
• For example, Khatris in the Punjab were among those attracted to the movement.

Support from Various Classes

• The popularity of the monotheistic movement was bolstered by support from the expanding class of urban artisans.
• In Punjab, Jat peasants, despite not being an urban class, also supported the movement, contributing to the development of Sikhism as a mass religion.

Role of Delhi Sultanate in the rise of Bhakti Movement in North India

Historians have proposed various reasons for the rise of the Bhakti movement:

• R.G. Bhandarkar argued that the Bhakti movement stemmed from the Vaishnavite tradition, particularly the Krishna Bhakti tradition found in the Bhagavata Purana.
• Some historians view the movement as an extension of the Shaivite and Vaishnavite religious traditions in South India, as seen in the works of the Alvars and Nayanars.
• The Bhakti movement is also seen as a reaction against feudal oppression, which was often rooted in a Brahmin-Rajput alliance during the early medieval period.
• David Kinsley suggested that the movement arose from dissatisfaction and tension within a patriarchal society, leading to figures like Mirabai, Lalded, and Mahadevi Akka seeking divine consorts.
• Some historians, however, believe that the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and the arrival of Islam were pivotal to the rise of the Bhakti movement:
• Yusuf Hussain argued that before the 13th century, the Bhakti movement was an individual sentiment, but post-Delhi Sultanate, it evolved into a cult under Islamic influence.
• R.C. Zaehner believed that the Bhakti movement was largely inspired by Islamic concepts of monotheism and equality that became prominent after the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Tarachand claimed that Sufi ideas of equality, service, and universal brotherhood influenced the Bhakti movement, particularly after the Delhi Sultanate.
• Muhammad Habib and Irfan Habib viewed the rise of the Bhakti movement within an economic context, including the foundation of the Sultanate, political centralization, and the emergence of new economic groups such as artisans and traders who were dissatisfied with the Brahmanical caste structure.
• Some argue that the Bhakti movement was a defensive response to Islam following the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
• The establishment of the Sultanate also weakened the Rajput-Brahmin coalition, which had been hostile to heterodox and non-conformist ideas, creating a more favorable environment for the Bhakti movement.
• In summary, while multiple factors contributed to the rise of the Bhakti movement, the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and the influence of Islam were significant catalysts.

Various trends in the historiography of Bhakti Movement

R.G. Bhandarkar and R.C. Zaehner were among the first historians to study the Bhakti movement.

Bhandarkar:

• Described the Bhakti movement as indigenous in nature.
• Provided literary and epigraphic evidence, such as the antiquities of Krishna Worship.

Zaehner:

• Proposed that the Bhakti movement was inspired by Islam.
• Supported this view by highlighting the egalitarian message of Bhakti, similar to Islam, and the idea of personal worship akin to Islamic monotheism.

Tarachand:

• Suggested that the concepts of equity and universal brotherhood taught by Bhakti saints were comparable to Sufi thought.

Yusuf Hussain:

• Argued that the Bhakti movement, up to the 13th century, was characterized by individual sentiment, but later became influenced by Islam, transforming into a doctrine and cult.
• Viewed the movement as a reformation of Hinduism, promoting simplicity of faith.

Many historians perceive the Bhakti movement as a form of dissent, protest, and reform, expressing discontent against the social order that discriminated against lower castes.

J.R. Kamble:

• Maintained that the primary goal of the Bhakti movement was to establish an egalitarian society, primarily within the religious sphere.
• Noted that the message of equality was not extended to secular aspects of life.
• Despite this limitation, the movement contributed to the emergence of a composite Indian culture, integrating diverse linguistic and religious communities, akin to a national renaissance.

Ishwaran:

• Regarded Lingayatism, based on universal principles of freedom, equality, and rationality, as a model demonstrating the Bhakti movement's role in modernization.

Irfan Habib:

• Asserted that the Turks in medieval India established a superior economic organization, leading to urbanization, commerce, and craft production.
• This development resulted in the expansion of an artisan class and the adoption of new professions by the indigenous population, primarily from the lower class, which enhanced their dignity within the caste hierarchy.
• The new social environment fostered by the egalitarian ideology of Islam facilitated the emergence of anti-caste religious movements, including those led by Bhakti saints like Kabir and Nanak.
• Habib noted that some groups, such as the Khatris in Punjab, who benefited from urban growth and craft production, were drawn into the Bhakti movement due to their low social status in Brahmanical society.
• In Punjab, the movement extended beyond urban areas, gaining support from Jat peasants, with their backing of Guru Nanak's movement contributing to the development of Sikhism.

Criticism of the Movement:

• Some historians criticized the Bhakti movement as status quoist, arguing that it did not achieve much beyond expressing discontent.

Max Weber:

• Proposed that lower-caste Hindus adhered to their caste duties with greater intensity in the hope of improving their position in the afterlife.
• Argued that the Bhakti movement strengthened the position of Brahmanas.
• Contended that Bhakti was a foreign idea introduced to India through Christianity, a claim that lacks credibility.

David Kinsley:

• Noted that while Bhakti opened doors for women voicing discontent with patriarchy, male bhaktas often excluded women despite their calls for change and protests against societal injustices.

Scholars like Barth and Senart:

• Believed that Bhakti, as understood in India and inspired by tradition, is rooted in Indian thought.
• However, it also absorbed external influences, particularly after the arrival of Islam in India.

One modern perspective:

• Attributes the rise of the medieval Bhakti movement to the alleged persecution of Hindus under Muslim rule.
• Suggests that the movement aimed to protect Hinduism by eliminating the caste system and idolatry while preserving the fundamental tenets of Hinduism.

Main popular movements and their characteristic

Monotheistic Movements of North India:

Kabir (1440-1518):

• Most influential figure in the 15th-century monotheistic movements.
• Strictly monotheistic, advocating the abolition of Varnaashrama and questioning the authority of the Vedas.
• Referenced in Sufi literature, considered a Firdausiya Sufi in the 17th-century account Mirat ul asar.
• Featured in the Persian work Dabistan-i Mazahib, highlighting his popularity among North Indians.
• Abul Fazl recognized him as a monotheist.
• Bijak, a compilation of his compositions, became the holy scripture for the Kabirpanthi sect.
• Believed in salvation through devotion (Bhakti), not knowledge or action.
• Admired the good in both Hindus and Muslims, without favoring either.
• Contemporaries included saints like Raidas, Dhanna, Sen, and Pipa.

Guru Nanak (1469-1539):

• Preached similarly to Kabir but later developments led to the emergence of Sikhism.
• Integral to the monotheistic movement with a philosophy comprising a charismatic leader (Guru), ideology (Shabad), and organization (Sangat).
• Criticized prevailing religious beliefs to establish a true path to salvation, rejecting idol worship, pilgrimage, ritualism, and caste-based inequality.
• Emphasized the unity of God and the importance of a true Guru, advocating principles like truth, lawful earning, goodwill, right intention, and service of the Lord.
• Championed universal brotherhood, gender equality, and social justice, while avoiding celibacy or vegetarianism.
• Stressed concepts like justice, righteousness, and liberty, with a focus on truth and the divine name.
• Introduced practices like kirtan, satsang, and community lunch (langar).
• Influenced by Sufi thought but critical of Sufi excesses.
• Sought to unify Hindus and Muslims, synthesizing key aspects of both religions in his teachings.
• His hymns, along with those of Kabir and Namdev, were included in the Adi Granth by Guru Arjun.
• After Guru Gobind Singh, the divine spirit passed into the Granth (Guru Granth Sahib) and the community of followers.
• The Gurus, mainly from the Khatri caste, had a diverse following, including Jats and artisan castes like Ramgarhias, as well as converts from scheduled castes.
• Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa (brotherhood), with Khatris, Aroras, Jats, and various artisan and convert groups forming important parts of the Sikh community.

Common Characteristics of Monotheistic Movements:

• Many monotheists were from “low” castes and shared a sense of unity in their ideas.
• They acknowledged each other and their predecessors in their verses, showing ideological harmony.
• The movement synthesized elements from vaishnava bhakti, nathpanthi, and Sufi traditions, but innovated and adapted these concepts.
• Monotheists firmly believed in one God and adopted bhakti with a nirguna focus.
• They emphasized repetition of divine names, spiritual gurus, community singing, and companionship of saints, independent of Hinduism and Islam.
• Critiqued superstitions and orthodox practices in both religions and rejected the Brahmans' authority and scriptures.
• Composed poems in popular languages, using accessible symbols and images.
• Unlike ascetics, monotheistic saints were married, lived among people, and disdainful of professional ascetics.
• They traveled widely, with figures like Namdev reaching places far from their origins.
• Monotheists gained popularity among lower classes and transcended territorial limits.
• Followers of major figures formed exclusive sectarian orders, like Kabir panth, Raidasi panth, and Nanak panth (which later evolved into Sikhism).

Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in North India 

Nimbarka (Younger Contemporary of Ramanuja): A Telugu Brahman:

• Nimbarka, a contemporary of Ramanuja from the South, established his ashram near Mathura and spent most of his time in Vrindavan, close to Mathura in North India.
• He preached to the common people about devotion to God, exemplified by Krishna and Radha, and emphasized total devotion to them.
• Nimbarka is known for founding the Kumara Sampradaya and for propounding the Dvaitadvaita school of thought.
• His most famous work is the Vedanta-parijata-saurabha, a commentary on the Brahma-sutras.

Ramananda (Late 14th and Early 15th Century):

• Ramananda was a Vaishnava devotional poet-saint active in the Ganges river region of northern India.
• He was a disciple of Ramanuja and played a significant role in linking the South Indian bhakti tradition with North Indian Vaishnava bhakti.
• Ramananda deviated from the earlier South Indian acharyas in three key ways:
• He focused on Rama, not Vishnu, as the object of devotion, becoming the founder of the Rama cult in North India within the Vaishnava bhakti tradition.
• He established the Ramanandi Sampradaya, which became a major movement in Medieval India's religious history.
• Ramananda preached in the language of the common people rather than Sanskrit, making bhakti accessible to all regardless of caste. He relaxed caste rules significantly, including sharing food with his "low" caste Vaishnava followers.
• Though a Brahman, he associated closely with his lower-caste followers, earning respect from figures like Kabir, who is sometimes considered his disciple.
• Traditional scholarship suggests that Ramananda's disciples included later Bhakti movement poet-saints like Kabir, Ravidas, and Bhagat Pipa, although some scholars question this lineage.
• Ramananda traveled extensively across India, gathering ideas and making observations. He rejected rigid Hindu rituals, and his disciples, known as Advadhuta, considered themselves free from all religious and social customs. However, in his Anand Bhashya, he did not acknowledge the right of a Sudra to read the Vedas, indicating that social equality was not a primary concern for him.
• His teachings led to the emergence of two distinct schools of thought among Hindus: Saguna (represented by Tulsidas) and Nirguna (represented by Kabir).
• Ramananda's verses are also mentioned in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth.

Vallabhacharya (Late 15th and Early 16th Century):

• Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahman, founded the philosophy of Shuddha Advaita and the Krishna-centered Pushtimarga (Way of Grace) of Vaishnavism in the Braj region of India.
• His sect, known as the Vallabha Sampradaya or Vallabha Sect, emphasized Krishna bhakti.
• Vallabhacharya is believed to have had famous Krishna bhakti saint-poets, including Surdas(1483-1563) and seven others from the ashtachhap, as his disciples. This sect later gained popularity in Gujarat.
• Its popularity increased during the Mughal period.

Tulsidas (1532-1623): Rama:

• Tulsidas played a crucial role in giving literary form to the religious Bhakti tradition while preserving the authority of the Vedas.

Surdas (1483-1563): Krishna:

• Surdas was a prominent figure in Krishna bhakti.

Mira Bai (1503-1573): Krishna:

• Mira Bai, a distinguished poet and symbol of love and attachment to Lord Krishna, was greatly influenced by the Bhakti doctrine.
• In her poem Padavali, she expresses her devotion to Lord Krishna as a Virgin, showing total indifference to worldly life.
• Mira Bai advocates image-worship and the observance of special fasts as part of her devotion.

Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in Bengal 

How Bengal Vaishnavism differed from North Indian and older South Indian Bhakti:

• Bengal Vaishnavism was influenced by the Vaishnava bhakti tradition of the Bhagavata Purana, which celebrates Krishna Lila, and the non-Vaishnava cults like Sahajiya Buddhism and Nathpanthi traditions.
• Jayadeva, a prominent figure in the 12th century, composed the Gita Govinda in Sanskrit, infusing erotic mysticism into the love of Radha and Krishna.
• He also wrote songs in the Maithili dialect, which were later incorporated into the Bengali Vaishnava bhakti tradition.
• The Sahaja philosophy, emphasizing the internal form (sahaja) present in every object, preached an easy and natural religion focused on esoteric and emotional elements.
• Prominent figures in the Bengal bhakti movement included Chandidas,Vidyapati, and Chaitanya who were influenced by both Vaishnava and non-Vaishnava (Buddhism and Hinduism) streams.
• The movement emerged in a context of Varnashrama-based social structure, with the Sudras and lower castes facing various disabilities and the Sakta-tantric creed predominating among religious systems.
• Despite the decline of Buddhism, its decadent form influenced Vaishnavism, which in turn shaped the Bengali Bhakti movement, emphasizing eroticism,female form, and sensuousness.
• Chaitanya, born in Nadia, Bengal, in 1486, became a pivotal figure in the Gaudia Vaishnav(Neo-Vaishnavite) movement, adopting the Krishna cult and promoting bhakti across various social strata.
• His movement marked a shift in Bengal Vaishnavism from devotional literary compositions to a social reform movement, disregarding distinctions of caste, creed, and sex in devotional practices.
• Although a Brahmin, Chaitanya rejected the idea of Brahmin superiority, mingling with members of lower castes and promoting equality in devotional singing.
• His theology of Achintya-Bheda-Abheda emphasized the inconceivable oneness and difference in God, particularly in the relationship between Krishna and his energies, like Radha.
• Chaitanya popularized sankirtana, group devotional singing with ecstatic dancing, profoundly impacting the social, religious, and cultural life of Assam,Bengal, and Orissa.

Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra (Maratha Vaishnavism or Bhagavata Dharma) 

The Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra:

• Pandharpur became the center of the movement, with the temple of Vithoba as its focal point.
• Key figures in the movement included Jnaneshvar,Namadeva,Ekanath, and Tukaram of the Varkari sect. Another significant figure was Sant Ramdas.

Jnaneshwar (1275-1296):

• Pioneer of Bhakti: Jnaneshwar, a Brahmin saint, is recognized as the first Bhakti saint of Maharashtra.
• Jnanesvari: He authored a Marathi commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, known as Bhavartha Dipika or Jnanesvari, which is among the earliest works of Marathi literature and laid the groundwork for Bhakti ideology in the region.
• Abhangs: Jnaneshwar composed hymns called Abhangs.
• Teachings on Bhakti: He emphasized that the only path to God is through Bhakti, which transcends caste distinctions.
• Pandarpur: The main center of his movement was Pandarpur.
• Bhagavata Dharma: By interpreting the Bhagavad Gita in melodic Marathi tunes, Jnaneshwar established the Bhagavata Dharma in Maharashtra and promoted the Varkari sect, which initiated regular pilgrimages to the shrine of Vithoba at Pandarpur.
• Vithoba Shrine: The shrine of Vithoba in Pandarpur became central to the Bhakti movement.
• Krishna Bhakti Movement: This movement was closely tied to the temple and deity but was not idolatrous. Vithoba represented more than a mere deity; it symbolized the essence of the Varkari sect.
• Varkari Sect: The followers of Vithoba were mainly householders who undertook pilgrimages to the temple twice a year, cutting across caste boundaries.
• Mass Participation: The movement saw participation from various social groups, including sudras, Atisudras, Kumbhera (potters), mali, mahar (outcastes), and Alute balutedars.
• Lower Strata Saints: Saints from lower strata of society included Harijan Saint Choka, Gora Kumbhar, Narahari Sonara, Banka Mahara, among others.
• Post-Jnaneshwar Saints: After Jnaneshwar, prominent saints included Namdeva (a tailor), Eknath, Tukaram, and Ramdas, who continued and expanded upon the Bhakti tradition.

Eknath:

• Eknath, a Brahmin, built upon the tradition established by Jnaneshwar.
• He communicated his teachings in the vernacular Marathi language.
• Eknath shifted the focus of Marathi literature from spiritual texts to narrative forms.

Namdev (1270-1350):

• Namdev, a tailor by profession, is perceived as a crucial link between the Maharashtrian Bhakti movement and the North Indian monotheistic movement.
• He traveled extensively in North India, including the Punjab, and his devotional songs are included in the Adi Granth of the Sikhs.
• In Maharashtra, Namdev is celebrated as a part of the Varkari tradition, while in North India, he is revered as a nirguna saint in the monotheistic tradition.

Tukaram and Ramdas:

• Tukaram and Ramdas, who was also a teacher to Shivaji, were notable for their anti-caste and anti-ritual slogans.
• Tukaram’s teachings are primarily found in Avangas or verses, which form the Gatha, a key source for studying Maratha Vaishnavism.

Varkari Maratha Saints:

• The Varkari Maratha saints introduced new methods of religious instruction, such as Kirtan and Nirupana.
• This movement played a significant role in the development of Marathi literature and the elevation of lower castes.
• These saints utilized popular dialects, contributing to the transformation of Marathi into a literary language.

Literature of the Varkari School:

• The literature from the Varkari school provides insights into the plebeian character of the movement.
• It addressed the concerns of common people, including Kunbis(farmers),Vanis(traders), and artisans.
• Historian G. Ranade noted that this movement led to the rise of vernacular literature and the upliftment of lower castes.

Bhakti Movement in other part of Western India 

Narsinh Mehta:

• He was a 15th-century poet-saint from Gujarat and a prominent figure in Vaishnavism.
• In Gujarati literature, he is honored as the Adi Kavi, or the first poet.
• His devotional song Vaishnav Jan To was a favorite of Mahatma Gandhi and has become closely associated with him.

Dadu Dayal (circa 1544-1603):

• Dadu Dayal was influenced by the teachings of Kabir.
• He was a significant proponent of the Nirguna School, hailing from Gujarat with unclear origins and social background.
• Dadu rejected caste and creed distinctions, advocating for a universal religion centered on love and devotion to God.
• He believed that devotion should surpass religious boundaries, encouraging a non-sectarian approach.
• In his collection of hymns and poems called Bani, Dadu considers Allah, Ram, and Govind as his spiritual guides.
• His teachings were influenced by Sufi ideas.
• In the 18th century, the Dadu Panth evolved into the Nagas, a group of professional fighters.

Bhakti Movements in other regions 

In different regions of India during the medieval period, various forms of bhakti, a devotional movement, emerged with distinct characteristics:

• Kashmir: In the 14th century, Saiva bhakti flourished, with Lal Ded being the most prominent figure.
• Gujarat: The Vallabha sect, founded by Vallabhacharya, gained popularity, particularly among merchants and landowners. Narsimha Mehta, a notable figure (1414-1481 or 1500-1580), also contributed to this movement.
• Karnataka: The Virasaivas, active in the 12th and 13th centuries, were a Saiva bhakti cult. They introduced a radical and heterodox concept of bhakti by incorporating social criticism into their religious beliefs.
• Assam: Sankaradeva (1449-1568) preached absolute devotion to Vishnu or his incarnation, Krishna. Despite facing persecution from orthodox Brahman priests, he promoted monotheistic ideas through his concept of eka-sarana-dharma, which emphasized seeking refuge in one deity. He denounced the caste system and communicated in a common language.
• Sankaradeva innovated devotional practices by incorporating dance, drama, and music into bhakti preaching and founded the institution of satra, which later evolved into monasteries. His sect is known as Mahapurashiya dharma.

Influence of other traditions on Bhakti Movements during Sultanate period

Bhakti and Monotheism in the Sultanate Period

Influence of Pre-Sultanate Traditions:

• Bhakti tradition of the Bhagavat Purana.
• Heterodox movements like the nathpanthis.

Ramananda and Monotheism:

• Ramananda is seen as a source of monotheism because he:
• Opposed caste restrictions and preached in a popular dialect.
• However, his ideas were mainly part of Vaishnava bhakti.
• Kabir and other monotheists were more radical, rejecting Brahmanical religion entirely.
• Ramanand's disciples did not mention him as a guru.

Influence of Nathpanthi Movement:

• The Nathpanthi movement influenced monotheistic saints through:
• Lower-caste siddha preachers.
• Non-conformist attitudes.
• However, the influence was limited to attitudes, not practices.
• Kabir rejected nathpanthi asceticism and physical methods.
• Monotheists adopted Nathpanthi ideas selectively, differing in style.

Islamic Influence and Sufism:

• Some scholars argue that the bhakti movement was influenced by Islam, but...
• Bhakti had indigenous origins and predated Islam in South India.
• The older South Indian bhakti movement emerged before the arrival of Islam.
• It is better to understand the bhakti movements within their immediate historical context.

Islamic Influence on Monotheists:

• There was mutual influence between the monotheistic bhakti movement and Islam, facilitated by Sufism.
• Non-conformist saints adopted various Islamic ideas, such as:
• Faith in one God
• Rejection of incarnation
• Concepts of nirguna bhakti
• Critique of idolatry
• Rejection of the caste system

Similarities between Sufism and Monotheistic Saints:

• Sufi ideas of pir and union with the “beloved” (God) parallel the concepts of guru and devotion among non-conformist saints.
• Some non-conformist saints interacted with Sufis, such as Guru Nanak.
• Despite being historically independent, Sufism and monotheistic movements shared similarities in rejecting Hindu and Muslim orthodoxies.
• Indirect interaction between them likely spurred both movements.

Islamic Influence on Vaishnava Bhakti Movements:

• Islamic influence was minimal as Vaishnava bhakti did not reject idolatry, the caste system, or the theory of incarnation.

Theory of Islamic Challenge to Hinduism

According to this perspective, the rise of the medieval bhakti movements was a response to the alleged persecution of Hindus under 'Muslim' rule and the challenge posed by Islam through its doctrines of the "Unity of God," equality, and brotherhood.

According to this theory, the bhakti movements served as a two-pronged defensive mechanism to protect Hinduism by:

• Purging the religion of evils like the caste system and idolatry.
• Defending its core tenets by popularizing them.

However, this notion of the movement lacks evidence:

• This theory appears to project modern communal biases onto the past.
• By the time Islam reached India, the Islamic principle of "brotherhood" had diminished in appeal, and social, economic, and racial inequalities had infiltrated Muslim society.
• The Turkish ruling class viewed themselves as superior, considering Indian converts as inferior and unfit for high-ranking positions.
• The Hindu population continued to practice their religious customs and celebrate festivals, with the majority of Hindus residing near Delhi, the capital of the Sultanate.
• Monotheistic saints criticized aspects of both orthodox Brahmanism and orthodox Islam.
• Assuming that all monotheistic and Vaishnava bhakti saints were united in responding to an Islamic threat is unconvincing, as there was little unity among these saints.
• The poetry and teachings of various bhakti saints did not universally address the Islamic threat and often showed indifference to such influence.
• In fact, many Hindus and Muslims were disciples of bhakti saints like Chaitanya, Kabir, Nanak, and Dadu, indicating a more inclusive and less polarized spiritual environment.

Impact of the Sufi and Bhakti Movements on vernacular languages

Impact of Bhakti and Sufi Movements on Vernacular Languages:

• The Bhakti and Sufi saints questioned the authority of ancient Indian scriptures and the Sanskrit language, which had become hard for the common people to understand.
• They spread their teachings in the local dialects and vernaculars, making them accessible to the masses.
• This approach significantly contributed to the growth of vernacular languages like Tamil, Telugu, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali, Oriya, Assamese, Maithili, Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani, etc.
• The themes of Bhakti and Sufi enriched the literature in these languages.

South India: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada:

• Tamil: The Bhakti movement began in South India. Alvar and Nayanar saints composed Tamil texts to spread their ideas. The devotional songs of Alvar saints are compiled as Divya Prabandham, while Nayanar’s works are known as Devaram.
• Telugu: Tamil Bhakti influenced the development of Telugu literature. The earliest major work is the Telugu Mahabharata by Nannaya, Tikkana, and Erra Pragada. Vaishnavism further shaped Telugu literature during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya.
• Kannada: The Bhakti movement in Shaivism and Vaishnavism also impacted Kannada literature. Basava, a 12th-century poet, was a prominent figure in the Shaivite Bhakti movement. The Vaishnava Bhakti movement, particularly the works of haridasas from the 14th to 16th centuries, significantly influenced Kannada literature, with a body of work known as Haridasa Sahitya. Purandara Dasa, a notable Vaishnava bard, composed many songs in Kannada.

Eastern India: Bengali, Oriya, Assamese, Maithili:

• Bengali: Chaitanya and poet Chandidasa spread Vaishnavism through Bengali literature. New genres of Vaishnava biographies emerged, such as Chaitanya Bhagvata and Chaitanya-Charitamitra. Mirza Hussein Ali later composed songs in Bengali honoring Goddess Kali.
• Oriya: The Bhakti movement of Chaitanya and Vaishnava poets greatly influenced Oriya literature. Sarladeva wrote a Mahabharata in Oriya in the 14th century.
• Assamese: In the 15th century, Vaishnava Bhakti leader Shankaradev popularized Assamese in the Brahmaputra valley through plays and poetry. His follower,Madhavadas, wrote Bhakti-Ratnavali in Assamese, discussing various aspects of Bhakti.
• Maithili: The development of modern Maithili language in Bihar was linked to Vaishnava Bhakti culture. Vidyapati is a prominent poet who wrote stories and poetry devoted to Radha Krishna and Shiva.

Western India: Rajasthani, Gujarati:

• Rajasthani: Bhakti saint Mirabai composed her songs in Rajasthani, influenced by earlier Hindi poets.
• Gujarati: Narasimha Mehta, a 15th-century bhakti saint from Gujarat, composed devotional lyrics in Gujarati. His bhajan ‘Vaishnav Jan To’ became Mahatma Gandhi’s favorite, marking the golden age of Gujarati literature.

Punjabi:

• Baba Farid, a Sufi poet, pioneered a new school of poetry in Punjabi. Guru Nanak and later Sikh Gurus enriched Punjabi through their poetry. Guru Arjun Dev compiled the Adi Granth, including works of saints like Kabir, Farid, Namdev, Surdas, Mirabai, and Ravidas. Guru Gobind Singh’s writings are in the Dasam Granth.

Marathi:

• Marathi literature, emerging in the 13th century, was significantly influenced by saint poets of the Natha cult and by figures like Janadeva,Eknatha,Tukaram, and Ramdas. Eknath’s commentary on the Bhagavad Gita and Tukaram’s devotional lyrics became highly popular.

Hindi:

• Amir Khusro, a 13th-century Sufi poet, wrote in Hindavi, Punjabi, and Persian. The Adi Kala period in Hindi literature saw major contributions from Bhakti and Sufi poets like Kabir, Guru Nanak, Dadu, Sundaradasa, Tulsidasa, Surdas, and Mirabai.

Urdu:

• Sufi saints significantly influenced the development of Urdu literature through their poetry. The ghazal form, integrating mystical and erotic themes, became prominent. Amir Khusro and other Sufi figures contributed to the establishment of Urdu as a medium for Sufi narrative verse.

Impact of the Sufi and Bhakti Movements on life and thought of the common people: 

Bhakti Movement: Overview and Impact:

• The Bhakti movement, which started in the South of India, evolved into a massive movement that spread across the entire country, becoming one of the most widespread and popular movements in India after the decline of Buddhism.
• The movement aimed to reform Hinduism to make it resilient against Islamic criticism and conversion efforts, and to promote harmony between Hindus and Muslims.
• It succeeded in simplifying worship practices and liberalizing caste rules, promoting the idea that all people are equal in the eyes of God and that birth does not determine religious salvation.
• Despite its efforts, the movement could not achieve Hindu-Muslim unity, as many Muslims did not accept the Hindu deities and the idea of a single God being known by different names.
• Nevertheless, the Bhakti reformers and Sufi saints fostered a sense of brotherhood between Hindus and Muslims, which influenced Mughal emperors to adopt policies of religious tolerance.
• The movement set the stage for Akbar's rule, which aimed to transform the Mughal state into a national one, encouraging a blend of Hindu and Muslim traditions.
• It inspired figures like Shivaji and contributed to the foundation of Sikhism.
• The Bhakti movement significantly influenced literature in various dialects and languages, with notable progress in Tamil and Marathi literature during medieval times.
• It also impacted socio-religious concepts, paving the way for better social conditions in medieval India.
• While indigenous in nature, the Bhakti cult was invigorated by the presence of Muslims in India, promoting human equality and condemning ritualism and casteism.
• It envisioned a society based on justice and equality, where individuals from all backgrounds could achieve their moral and spiritual potential.

The contribution of the Acharyas in the development of the ideological basis of Bhakti: 

Start of Bhakti Movement by Alvars and Nayanars:

• The Bhakti movement began in South India through the efforts of the Alvars(devotees of Lord Vishnu) and Nayanars(worshippers of Lord Shiva). They laid the foundation for a devotional approach to spirituality.

Role of Acharyas:

• After the Alvars and Nayanars, the Acharyas played a crucial role in shaping the Bhakti movement. They were theologian philosophers who provided the ideological basis for various devotional communities.
• Prominent Acharyas included Sankaracharya,Ramanujacharya,Madhavacharya, and Nimbakacharya. These thinkers expanded and consolidated the philosophical foundations of their respective communities.

Key Contributions of Acharyas:

• The Acharyas made significant contributions to the Bhakti movement by:
• Collecting the hymns of early saints and creating an institutional framework for the movement.
• Harmonizing regional ideas with Pan-Indian texts such as the Upanishads.

Textual Tradition and Community Continuity:

• The Acharyas developed a textual tradition that included commentaries, hagiographies (biographies of saints), and temple texts like the Agamas. These texts articulated the ideologies of their religious communities.
• Through these texts, a community tradition emerged that provided a sense of history and cultural continuity. This continuity reflected ancient beliefs, practices, and conventions, giving legitimacy to the community.

Examples of Acharyas' Work:

• For instance, Adi Shankaracharya wrote commentaries on the Brahma Sutras,Principal Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita. His commentaries, while interpreting existing texts, became subjects of further interpretations, contributing to religious exegesis.
• Similarly, hagiographies and temple texts offered continuity through biographical narratives of saints and myths of deities, linking normative and popular traditions.

Institutional Framework and Mathas:

• The Acharyas strengthened their communities by creating an institutional framework. This included gaining privileges in temples, such as the right to perform rituals.
• They also established mathas(monastic centers), with Adi Shankaracharya founding four mathas across the Indian peninsula. These mathas played a vital role in consolidating communities.

Promotion of Pilgrimage and Networking:

• The Acharyas promoted pilgrimage and established local, regional, and pan-Indian networks, fostering a collective consciousness within their communities.
• Through these efforts, the Acharyas highlighted and strengthened the collective identity of their respective religious communities.