Establishment of Jagir & Mansab Systems | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Establishment of Jagir and Mansab systems

14th Century Developments in West and Central Asia:

• After the breakup of the Mongol Empire in the 14th century, new and liberal ideas emerged in West and Central Asia, notably reflected in the state established by Timur.
• Timur's successors, while portraying themselves as orthodox Islamic rulers, adhered to the yassa of Chingiz, which included the principle of treating all sects equally without distinction.

Timurid Beliefs and Stability:

• The Timurid rulers believed in their divine right to rule, which earned them widespread respect and prevented challenges to their throne from the begs.
• This belief system provided stability as long as a ruler proved capable of governance.

Foundation of the Mughal State:

• Babur brought these traditions with him when establishing the Mughal state in India.
• Humayun followed in Babur's footsteps, continuing the legacy.

15th Century in India: Rise of Liberal Sufi Orders:

• In the 15th century, liberal Sufi orders gained prominence in India, emphasizing love and devotion to God over formal worship and promoting unity among devotees of different faiths.
• Bhakti saints like Kabir, Raidas, and Nanak stressed the importance of unity among all bhakts, regardless of caste or religion.

Religious Tolerance in Provincial Kingdoms:

• Many provincial kingdoms of the time practiced broad religious tolerance, allowing Hindus to hold high positions in the state and patronizing local languages and literatures.

Akbar’s Governance:

• When Akbar took over the reins of government after Bairam Khan’s regency, he was supported by a rich and liberal tradition.

Akbar’s Concept of Suzerainty 

Akbar and Divine Kingship: Abul Fazl's Perspective:
Abul Fazl, Akbar's biographer, elaborates on the emperor's religious views and concept of suzerainty. He describes royalty as a divine light, called farr-i-izidi, bestowed by God directly to kings, symbolizing a God-given right to rule.

Key Concepts in Abul Fazl's Perspective:

• Divine Light of Royalty: Royalty is seen as a divine light from God, not dependent on religious scholars (ulama). This concept, while ancient, is blended with Muslim and Hindu ideas in Abul Fazl's narrative.
• Paternal Love and Trust in God: The ideal ruler, endowed with farr-i-izidi, exhibits paternal love, trust in God, prayer, and moderation, ensuring justice and stability.
• Social Classification: Abul Fazl categorizes people into four groups: warriors, artificers and merchants, learned individuals, and husbandmen and laborers. He places the learned class lower than in traditional Hindu texts, reflecting contemporary social realities.
• Greek Influence on Social Classification: Drawing from Greek traditions, Abul Fazl classifies people into nobles, base, and intermediate categories based on their qualities and contributions to society.

Structure of Government, Central and Provincial 

Akbar's Administration and Reorganization of Government:

• Akbar inherited a government structure from the Delhi Sultanat, which had been influenced by the experiences of his predecessors, Babur and Humayun. However, Babur and Humayun did not have the opportunity to revise this system, and it was Sher Shah who provided a new impetus to it.
• After Akbar took control of the government, he focused on reorganizing the administration following the rebellions of Uzbek nobles and the Mirzas, as well as the conquest of Gujarat.
• He introduced a system with novel features, clearly defining the functions and responsibilities of various departments to ensure they did not encroach on each other while maintaining a balance and support system among them.
• Akbar's approach established a system of checks and balances, invigorating the administrative framework.
• At the district and sub-district levels, Akbar made minimal changes, with the sarkar and parganas continuing to function similarly, albeit with some changes in official designations.
• A significant contribution of Akbar was the development of provincial administration mirroring the central government system.
• Detailed rules and regulations were established for both provincial and district administration, as documented in the Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl.
• New regulations were continuously developed and compiled as Dastur-ul-Amals or Rule Books, leading to the emergence of a bureaucratic system of government.
• Despite this bureaucratic structure, the ruler remained the central figure in the system.

The Vakil 

Central Asian and Timurid Influence on Islamic Governance:

• In Islamic countries outside India and the Delhi Sultanate, various government departments existed, but the Central Asian and Timurid tradition favored a single wazir overseeing all branches of government.
• Babur's wazir,Nizammuddin Khwaja, was the political and financial head, primarily a military figure involved in Babur's campaigns.
• Humayun's wazirs,Amir Wais and Hindu Beg, were influential military men supervising all government branches.

Bairam Khan's Era:

• With the appointment of Bairam Khan as Vakil and ataliq(guardian) of the emperor, a new power dynamic emerged.
• Bairam Khan directed policy, appointed officials, and controlled revenue and military affairs, functioning like an all-powerful wazir.
• When Akbar assumed power, he implemented measures to prevent a repeat of Bairam Khan's dominance.

Akbar’s Administration and the Role of Vakil:

• Akbar's successors, with Maham Anaga influencing behind the scenes, attempted to wield powers similar to Bairam Khan.
• Akbar's drastic punishment of Adham Khan for stabbing Atka Khan demonstrated his control over factional politics.
• Munim Khan was made Vakil but did not hold significant power in the administration.

Separation of Revenue and Financial Affairs:

• In 1564-65,Muzaffar Khan Turbati, an Iranian and former diwan of Bairam Khan, became diwan of the Empire with Todar Mal as his assistant.
• Revenue and financial affairs gradually separated from the vakil's office.
• After the Uzbeks' downfall in 1567,Munim Khan was appointed governor of Jaunpur and then Bihar, ending his role in the central government.

Post-Munim Khan Era:

• After Munim Khan, the post of vakil remained vacant for seven years.
• In 1575,Muzaffar Khan was appointed vakil, combining the roles of vakil and diwan, focusing more on financial expertise.
• In 1579, Muzaffar Khan was posted to Bengal, losing his connection with the central government.

Akbar's Control Over the Vakil Position:

• Between 1579 and 1589, no vakil was appointed, reinforcing Akbar's control over the position.
• In 1595,Mirza Aziz Koka, a favorite of Akbar, became vakil until Akbar's death, but his role was more ceremonial than influential.
• The vakil's power diminished, with the position becoming a mark of prestige rather than real authority.

The Ministries 

Akbar's Organization of Ministries:

• Akbar faced the challenge of organizing the ministries while dealing with the vakil and the powerful wazir.
• There were four main departments:
• Revenue Department: Led by the diwan or wazir.
• Military Department: Headed by the Mir Bakshi.
• Department of Imperial Establishments and Royal Household: Overseen by the Mir Saman.
• Judicial and Revenue-Free Grants Department: Managed by the sadr.
• Over time, the wazir became the most powerful and influential position, closely followed by the Mir Bakhshi.

Diwan 

Abul Fazl's Account of the Diwan System under Akbar:

• The wazir,also known as diwan,headed the department of income and expenditure during Akbar's reign.
• Akbar's diwans were often individuals from humble backgrounds who gained the emperor's attention through their expertise in revenue matters.
• Diwan or diwan-i-ala was used more generally during Akbar's time, with some diwans being appointed to share the responsibilities.
• Diwan's duties included being the emperor's lieutenant in financial matters, supervising Imperial treasures, and checking all accounts. Abul Fazl referred to him as a "bookkeeper."
• The mustaufi(Auditor of Accounts) and accountants of various ministries reported to the diwan.
• Diwan's were primarily from the class of writers or ahl-i-qalam,though some had military backgrounds.
• The growth of the diwan's department began with Muzaffar Khan Turbati,who was appointed by Akbar due to his competence.
• Muzaffar Khan implemented important financial reforms during his diwanship but eventually fell out of favor due to power struggles.
• Raja Todar Mai and Khwaja Shah Mansur were notable officials who helped implement the dahsala or Ten Yearly system.
• Todar Mal,associated with revenue reforms under Sher Shah,became a key figure in Akbar's finance department and played a crucial role in the dahsala system.
• Muhammad Shah Mansur was responsible for dividing the empire into twelve provinces and implementing the dahsala system but faced challenges and was executed.
• After Todar Mal's death,the diwan system continued under less prominent individuals.
• Akbar effectively separated financial from military and political powers,ensuring efficiency and responsibility within the administration.

Mir Bakhshi 

Mir Bakhshi in the Mughal Empire:

• Originated from the diwan-i-arz in the Delhi Sultanat.
• Created to limit the power of the wazir.
• Responsible for army recruitment,horse inspection, and troop musters.

Powers of the Mir Bakhshi:

• Held all powers of the diwan-i-arz.
• Had greater influence due to overseeing military ranks(mansabs).
• Presented candidates for appointment to the Emperor.
• Maintained a register of mansabdars.
• Oversaw promotions and appointments of high officials.

Role and Duties:

• Not the commander-in-chief but the paymaster-general.
• Ensured proper disposition of troops in battle.
• Inspected soldiers and horses of mansabdars.
• Presented high officers of state to the king.

Intelligence and Security:

• Headed the intelligence department.
• Reviewed reports from waqia navis.
• Organized the palace guard.

Coordination with the Wazir:

• The wazir and Mir Bakhshi were the top officials.
• Checked and supported each other.
• All appointments and promotions went through both offices.

Mir Saman 

The Role of the Mir Saman and the Diwan-i-Bayutat in Akbar's Administration:

• In the Delhi Sultanat and Islamic countries of West Asia, there was no separate household department like under the Mughals. The Mir Saman was in charge of the royal household and considered on par with the wazir and Mir Bakhshi.
• The terms Mir Saman and Khan-i-Saman were not used during Akbar's time but became common under Jahangir and Shah Jahan. During Akbar's era, the office of the Mir Saman had not yet developed.
• Instead, there was the diwan-i-bayutat, responsible for the karkhanas, which were government-maintained factories and stores producing a range of items from precious stones and pearls to weapons and artillery.
• The diwan-i-bayutat also managed the maintenance of horses, elephants, and other animals for the army and the royal hunt. This position was crucial for the household, the darbar, and the army, and eventually evolved into the role of Mir Saman, head of a separate ministry.
• The Mir Saman's department was the largest manufacturing agency in the country for weapons and luxury items, necessitating close coordination with the Mir Bakhshi.
• Each karkhana was overseen by a darogha with expertise in the specific article being produced, along with an accountant and a mushrif for administration. Akbar personally visited these workshops regularly and even engaged in crafts for enjoyment.

Sadr 

Role of the Sadr in Mughal India:

• The sadr, also known as sadr-us-sadur, was the head of the ulama and the chief advisor to the king on matters of sharia law.
• He was responsible for appointing qazis(judges) throughout the empire and was considered the head of the judiciary.
• The king remained the final court of appeal, often consulting the mufti(Islamic scholar) in legal matters.
• The sadr had significant influence over education, ideas, and morals, acting as a form of censorship over the populace.
• A major duty of the sadr was to award subsistence allowances(madadd-i-maash) to deserving individuals, including scholars, divines, and women from noble families.
• These allowances could be given in cash or land grants, giving the sadr considerable patronage power.
• Some sadrs, like Shaikh Abdun Nabi under Akbar, abused this power for personal gain.
• Akbar respected Abdun Nabi for his learning but later disliked him due to corruption and mismanagement of land grants.
• After an inquiry, Abdun Nabi was exiled to Mecca in 1579.
• Akbar reformed the system, separating aima(revenue-free grant lands) from khalisa and consolidating them to avoid harassing grantees.
• The power of the sadr to grant subsistence lands was reduced; they could only make recommendations to the Emperor.
• Akbar aimed to ensure that deserving Hindu scholars and religious figures also benefited from land grants.
• He appointed sads with more tolerant views and broadened the practice of granting lands to Hindu holy men and temples.

Provincial government 

Delhi Sultanat Administrative System:

• Under the Delhi Sultanat, the empire was not clearly divided into provinces with set boundaries.
• Muqtis, who held iqtas, had military and executive power, aiding in land revenue collection and law enforcement, especially protecting royal pathways.
• Those with larger, strategic areas were called walis or amirs.

Akbar's Administrative System: Subah Division:

• Inherit the system from the Delhi Sultanat, Akbar divided the expanded empire into twelve subahs(provinces) by 1580.
• The head of each subah was known as the sipahsalar(commander) or later subahdar(governor).
• The subahdar was supported by various officials including a diwan(financial officer),bakhshi(military paymaster),sadr-cum-qazi(religious and judicial officer),mir adl(judge),kotwal(city police chief),mir bahr(superintendent of rivers and ports), and a waqia-navis(news writer).

Subah Administration:

• Officers were appointed by the emperor, not the governor, ensuring checks and balances.
• Orissa was part of Bengal, while Kashmir was in subah Kabul.
• Modern U.P. and Haryana were divided into four provinces: Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, and Delhi.
• As the empire expanded into the Deccan, three more subahs—Khandesh, Berar, and Ahmadnagar—were established.

Experimental Governance:

• In 1586, Akbar experimented with appointing two governors in each province for better administration.
• This was intended to ensure continuity in case one governor was absent but led to conflicts and was eventually abandoned.
• In some subahs like Kabul and Agra, a Muslim and a Rajput Raja shared command, while Lahore and Ajmer were solely under Rajput rajas.

Details from the Ain-i-Akbari:

• The Ain-i-Akbari provides geographical boundaries, climate, products, and history of each subah.
• Provinces were divided into sarkars and parganas, with details on assessed income, zamindar castes, and military forces.
• Mewar was part of sarkar Chittor, Kota was a pargana of sarkar Ranthambhor, and Jaipur (Amber) was a pargana of sarkar Ajmer.

Subah Income and Size:

• There was significant variation in the size and income of subahs, with Bengal having 24 sarkars and an assessed income of about 1.5 crore rupees, while Multan had 3 sarkars and an income of about 37 lakh rupees.
• Provincial governors were seen as viceregents of the emperor, responsible for law and order, general administration, and the welfare of the people.
• The governor was in charge of the provincial army, law and order, and welfare, helping the diwan in revenue collection and public works.

Governor's Responsibilities:

• The governor was responsible for criminal justice, keeping in touch with local events through spies and news-writers, and collecting tribute from vassal chiefs.
• There was no fixed term for governors, but they were frequently transferred.
• The diwan, second in command, was initially appointed by governors but became centrally appointed by 1595.

Diwan's Role:

• The diwan was responsible for financial reporting, tax collection, and improving cultivation.
• The bakhshi and sadr had roles similar to their central counterparts, with the bakhshi also overseeing intelligence.
• The kotwal managed city law and order and general amenities.

Governor's Team Dynamics:

• The governor led a team of officials, each with direct access to the center, requiring skillful management.
• Akbar maintained control over provincial governors through monitoring, tours, and addressing grievances, preventing regional separatism.
• Special officials were appointed to investigate complaints against local officials.

Provincial Governance Goals:

• Akbar aimed to create a provincial system that linked local administrations and transmitted information to the center.

District and Local government 

Administration in Provinces:

• Provinces were divided into sarkars and parganas for administrative purposes.
• Sarkars were headed by a faujdar, responsible for general governance, law and order, and road safety.
• The faujdar assisted the amalguzar, who handled land revenue assessment and collection.
• The faujdar managed day-to-day administration and commanded local armed forces but did not oversee land revenue collection.
• Qazi would handle criminal justice and civil law among Muslims or when one party in a dispute was Muslim.

Sarkars were further divided into parganas, each with specific officials:

• Shiqdar for general administration.
• Amil for land revenue assessment and collection.
• Treasurer for financial management.
• Qanungo for determining boundaries and maintaining revenue records.
• Clerks or karkuns for administrative support.

The Working of Government

The Ruler 

Akbar's Routine and Innovations in Governance:

• The ruler's approach to public business set a standard for the nobles.
• Akbar innovated by introducing the jharoka darshan, a morning appearance to connect personally with subjects, allowing them to submit petitions directly.
• As Akbar's prestige grew, some subjects would not eat until they had seen him, reflecting the tradition of viewing the king as divine.
• After jharoka darshan, Akbar met with everyone in the diwan-i-khas-o-am to hear petitions and news from officers and provinces.
• In the afternoon, Akbar inspected state animals and visited karkhanas (workshops) for various arts and crafts, enjoying the craftsmanship.
• Confidential state business occurred in the evening in the ghusal-khana, later renamed Daulat Khana-i-Khas by Shah Jahan.
• The Diwan-i-Khas was also a place for discussions with learned individuals.
• Akbar was known for being accessible to all, often meeting people incognito to observe them, a practice not seen in earlier Muslim rulers.
• His routine and approach to governance influenced his successors and made the monarchy more approachable.

The Land Revenue System 

Key Developments in the Land Revenue System Under Akbar:

• The evolution of the land revenue system during Akbar's reign, particularly the introduction of the dahsala or Ten-Year system in 1579, marked a significant advancement from the earlier practices.
• This system was a refinement of the measurement system (zabt) established by Sher Shah, which had been in operation in Hindustan, covering the region from Lahore to Allahabad, until Akbar's time.
• During the regency of Bairam Khan, the jama (assessment) was inflated due to the large number of claimants, leading to discontent and conflicts among the nobles.
• After taking full control of the administration in 1562, Akbar sought to reform the system. Initial efforts by Asaf Khan, an Irani wazir, were minimal. However, significant reforms were implemented by Aitmad Khan, a trusted eunuch, who was appointed as the diwan of the crown-lands (khalisa).
• Aitmad Khan's reforms involved separating khalisa lands from jagir lands after assessing the income from different types of lands, with the most productive lands being included in the crown lands.
• Until the tenth year of Akbar's reign (1566), the crop-rate (ray) established by Sher Shah was converted into a cash rate (dastur-ul-amal or dastur) using a single price list. This approach caused distress as the prices used for conversion were based on those prevailing in the royal camp, which were often higher than in the countryside.
• In the eleventh year (1567), significant changes were introduced by Muzaffar Khan and Raja Todar Mal. Qanungos were tasked with providing detailed information about land use, produce, and land revenue figures.
• Based on this information, the previously used jama-i-raqmi assessment was replaced with a new revenue estimate for the empire. This new system allowed for the conversion of crop-rates into cash based on regional prices rather than a single price list.
• The dastur rates from 1562 to 1579, as documented by Abul Fazl in the Ain, reflected maximum and minimum prices for different provinces, indicating regional variations in prices and possibly productivity.
• Initially, the state demand was determined through annual measurements, but this was later replaced by kankut (estimation). While kankut was an improvement, it had its shortcomings due to local zamindars' reluctance to disclose accurate information and potential corruption among local officials.
• Delays in scrutinizing and approving regional price lists by the court, coupled with the uncertainties of the emperor's movements, led to significant distress, as noted by Abul Fazl.

The Dahsala System 

Background of Dahsala or Ten-Year Rates (1579):

• Incomplete information and the rapid expansion of the empire led to the need for the Dahsala or Ten-Year rates.
• The Dahsala system aimed to express state demand as a cash rate based on local productivity and prices.

Preliminary Steps Before Dahsala Implementation:

• Introduction of Amil Officials (1574) Officials called amil, popularly known as karoris, were assigned to manage lands capable of yielding a krore of tankas or two and a half lakh rupees.
• Karori Responsibilities The karori, aided by a treasurer, surveyor, and technical staff, was tasked with measuring village land and assessing cultivation areas.
• Measurement Tool Improvement The new jarib measuring rod, made of bamboo and iron rings, replaced the old hempen rope jarib, which was prone to expansion when wet.
• Focus on Cultivated Area The primary goal of the karori experiment was to measure cultivated areas, with an emphasis on encouraging the cultivation of banjar(uncultivated) land.

Khalisa Introduction and Dagh System (1576):

• Areas of Hindustan(from Lahore to Allahabad) were placed under khalisa, or direct crown administration.
• The introduction of the dagh system(branding of horses) led to discontent among some nobility.
• This step aimed to gain first-hand experience of agricultural conditions, not to eliminate the jagir system.

Implementation of Dahsala System (1579):

• With gained experience on land produce and local prices, lands were grouped into assessment circles(dasturs).
• Annual Revenue Fixation Based on the last ten years’ data,one-tenth of the average produce was fixed as annual revenue.
• Cash Rates Based on Multiple Factors State demand was determined by various cash rates based on crop types and sown areas.
• Peasant Impact While the system benefited the state by providing early income estimates, it shifted much of the cultivation risk onto the peasants.

Clarification on Ten-Year Settlement:

• The system was based on an average of produce and prices over the last ten years, not a ten-year settlement.

Price Calculation Methodology:

• The average prices for various crops were determined through a complex process, not merely by averaging past conversion prices.
• Cash-Crop Pricing High-grade cash crops like cotton and sugar-cane were priced based on good seasons due to their price fluctuations.

Factors Considered in State Demand:

• Productivity and continuity of cultivation were crucial in determining state demand.
• Polaj lands: Continually under cultivation.
• Parauti lands: Fallow for a year, charged full rates upon cultivation.
• Chachar lands: Fallow for three to four years, charged progressively.
• Banjar lands: Cultivable waste, full rates charged from the fifth year.

Classification of Lands:

• Lands were categorized as good,bad, or middling, with the state share typically being one-third of the average produce.
• In some regions, like Multan and Rajasthan, the share was one-fourth, while in Kashmir it was half due to saffron cultivation.

Distinction Between State Demand and Peasant Obligations:

• The land revenue demand did not encompass various other imposts like cess on cattle and trees, nor the shares taken by local officials.
• Despite this, the land revenue demand was the most significant obligation for peasants, with severe consequences for non-compliance.

The Working of the dahsala System 

Dahsala System and Land Revenue Assessment in Mughal India:

• The dahsala system, based on measurement or zabt, was introduced in regions like Lahore to Allahabad, Gujarat, Malwa, Bihar, and Multan. However, it is unlikely that zabt covered all land in any province. The Ain indicates that amalguzars (revenue collectors) could accept any assessment system preferred by the husbandman, with kankut and batai(crop-sharing) being common alternatives.
• Kankut involved measuring the entire land and estimating standing crops by inspection. In cases of doubt, crops were cut and evaluated in three categories: good, middling, and inferior.
• Batai had three types: bhaoli (reaping and stacking), khet batai (dividing fields after sowing), and lang batai (dividing cut grain). This system required vigilant inspectors to prevent deception.
• Nasaq was another assessment method, often debated among historians. It involved estimating based on previous assessments. Over time, zabt became standard, but batai remained an option, especially after crop failures.
• Contemporary records indicate that the state preferred cash payments but allowed peasants to pay in kind based on crop-sharing. The patta or qabuliat(letter of acceptance) issued to peasants was primarily a tool for the state to verify collections, as many peasants were illiterate.
• The dahsala assessment, while practical, faced challenges. It was deemed permanent but not inflexible. The state sought to benefit from increased cultivation and shared the advantages of agricultural expansion. Remissions were granted in cases of drought, but the system was often rigid, leading to arrears.
• Under Todar Mal, the government dealt strictly with revenue collectors to recover arrears, sometimes resulting in harsh treatment of peasants. A Commission was established to address abuses in the system, such as inflated arrears and assessments based on guesswork.
• During this period, the yard(gaz-i-Ilahi) was redefined, affecting the size of the bigha and necessitating revisions in crop rates.
• Overall, the dahsala system represented a complex and evolving approach to land revenue assessment in Mughal India, balancing state interests with agricultural realities.

The Mansabdari System and the Army 

The Mansabdari system was a unique administrative framework developed by the Mughal Empire in India. It was designed to streamline the management of officials and military personnel, ensuring that each individual had a clear rank, responsibilities, and compensation.

Key Features of the Mansabdari System:

• Rank and Status: Each individual in the system was assigned a mansab or rank, which determined their position in the official hierarchy and their salary.
• Armed Retainers: The mansab also specified the number of armed retainers (tabinan) that the individual was required to maintain for state service.
• Combined Responsibilities: The system integrated both civil and military duties into a single service, allowing officials to be appointed to various administrative or military roles.
• Salary Payment: While salaries could be paid in cash, they were often disbursed through grants of jagir, which allowed the holder to collect state payments.
• Range of Mansabs: Mansabs for nobles varied from 10 to 5000, with 66 categories in multiples of 10, 50, or 100.
• Categorizations: Mansabdars (up to 500), amirs (500 to 2500), and amir-i-umda or amir-i azam (2500 and above). Over time, those below 1000 were all termed mansabdars.

Special Cases and Historical Context:

• Mansabs above 5000: Initially reserved for princes of blood, though exceptions were made, such as Mirza Aziz Koka and Raja Man Singh during Akbar's reign.
• Rise of Ranks: Over time, the ranks for princes increased significantly, showcasing the evolving nature of the Mansabdari system.

Evolution of the Mansabdari System 

Gradation of Mansabs and Akbar's Reforms:

• The gradation of mansabs (ranks) is believed to have origins in Chingiz Khan's division of his army into units ranging from 10 to 10,000.
• Under the Lodis and Surs, nobles held ranks such as 20,000, 10,000, or 5,000 sawars (horsemen), but the actual number of horsemen commanded was unclear.
• Akbar is credited with establishing a regular hierarchy of mansabs ranging from 10 to 5,000, introducing a numerical division of ranks in 1567.
• The branding system (dagh) was introduced to reduce the disparity between the number of horsemen on paper and those actually employed.
• The dagh system involved inspecting and recording the horses and soldiers of each mansabdar, with penalties for non-compliance.
• Promotions were linked to adherence to the dagh system, which faced resistance from some nobles.
• Despite the dagh system, many mansabdars failed to maintain the required number of cavalry, often using borrowed men and horses for inspections.
• Akbar's reforms aimed to create a more accurate and accountable military system, but faced challenges in implementation.

Zat and Sawar Ranks 

Introduction of Dual Rank: Zat and Sawar (1595-96):

• In the 40th regnal year of Akbar's rule (1595-96), the concepts of dual rank, zat, and sawar were introduced.
• Abul Fazl categorized the mansabdars into three groups based on their sawar counts:
• First Category: Those who maintained sawars equal to their mansab number.
• Second Category: Those who maintained half or more of their mansab number.
• Third Category: Those whose sawars were less than half of their mansab number.
• During this time, the term zat began to signify personal rank. For instance, in the 41st year, Mirza Shahrukh was assigned a rank of 5000 zat with half the sawars.
• There has been much debate about the meanings of zat and sawar because the mansab system evolved gradually under Akbar. Initially, until 1594-95, there was only a single rank.
• In the dual zat and sawar system introduced after 1595-96:
• Zat reflected the personal pay and status of a noble.
• Sawar indicated the actual number of horsemen a noble was expected to maintain.
• This meant that a mansabdar with 4000 zat and 2000 sawars ranked higher than one with 3000 zat and 3000 sawars.
• The zat rank also determined the number of horses, elephants, camels, mules, and carts a mansabdar had to maintain.
• For example, a mansabdar with 5000 zat was required to maintain 340 horses,100 elephants,140 camels,100 mules, and 160 carts.
• Mansabdars with a rank of 400 or less were exempt from these requirements.
• The quality of the animals, such as horses (Iraqi, Turki, Yabu, Jungla) and elephants, was specified.
• There is some uncertainty about whether the maintenance costs for these animals were covered by the mansabdar's zat salary or were an additional payment, making it advantageous rather than burdensome.
• Given that the Mughal army needed to be highly mobile and nobles were often on the move, maintaining such a transport corps was crucial.
• Abul Fazl emphasized that not only the sawars and their mounts but also the beasts of burden were to be presented for the dagh.

The Zat and Sawar Salaries 

The state regulation of sawars and their horses:

• The state regulated the number and quality of horses a sawar was expected to maintain.
• The standard was 20 horses for every 10 sawars, known as the dah-bisti or ten-twenty system.
• This system ensured the mobility of the cavalry, which was the main fighting force of the Mughals. A second horse was necessary as a replacement in case the primary mount was tired,injured, or dead.
• The salary of a sawar depended on the number and quality of horses maintained. For example, a trooper with an Iraqi horse earned Rs. 30 per month, while those with a mujannas(mixed) horse earned Rs. 25.
• Before the dagh system, salaries varied based on the number of horses. Mughals, Afghans, and Indian Muslims earned Rs. 25 per month for three horses, while Rajputs earned less, with Rajputs receiving Rs. 20 for three horses and Rs. 15 for two horses.
• Despite the lower salaries for Rajputs, this discrimination encouraged non-Rajput nobles to employ Rajputs.
• After the dagh, salaries were fixed based on the quality of horses presented. The average salary of a sawar before dagh under Akbar was Rs. 240 per annum.
• The mansabdar could keep 5 percent of the total salary of the sawars for general expenses. The jagir awarded to a mansabdar included his zat salary and the salary allowed to his contingent based on sawar rank.
• Salaries were calculated in dams, with a rupee equal to 40 dams. The revenue assessment for jagir grants was called jamadami.
• The zat salary varied based on the noble's rank. For example, a noble of 5000 in the first rank received Rs. 30,000 per month, while those in lower categories received slightly less.
• Nobles had to make annual presents to the Emperor, and the cost of collecting land revenue from their jagirs did not exceed one-fourth of the salary.
• Despite these costs, the salaries were attractive, drawing capable individuals from far and wide. The historian Badayuni noted that qualified and zealous men were frequently appointed to mansabs or promoted to higher positions.
• Estimating the number of mansabdars under Akbar is challenging. Figures given by Abul Fazl include all nobles, dead or alive, who served over forty years.
• Du Jarric, writing in Jahangir's reign, listed 2941 mansabdars from ranks 10 to 5000, with 150 holding ranks of 2500 or above.
• These 150 individuals held key civil or military positions, forming a personalized bureaucracy dependent on the ruler.
• It has been suggested that the empire would have been more stable if Akbar had paid nobles in cash. However, this perspective overlooks the complex social realities of the time.
• By allotting jagirs to nobles, the state ensured their vested interest in collecting land revenue. While this system could lead to local oppression, it was more manageable than direct state dealings with a resistant peasant population.
• Akbar briefly took areas from Lahore to Allahabad under khalisa or direct administration to gain accurate information about cultivation. However, jagir allotment was resumed after a few years.
• Control over land was a matter of social prestige and a guarantee for payment.

The Army 

Organization and Composition of the Mughal Army:

• Under Akbar, the Mughal army was efficiently organized into a cadre of strong officers and a well-structured hierarchy.
• Troops were categorized into various types based on their roles and responsibilities, including infantry, cavalry, and artillery.
• Each unit was led by a mughal officer with the title of mansabdar, who was responsible for maintaining discipline and ensuring the effective functioning of his troops.

Strength and Components of the Mughal Army:

• The Mughal army was a formidable force, boasting 100,000 infantry,50,000 cavalry, and 5,000 elephants.
• The army was not just large but also well-equipped with advanced weaponry, including matchlocks and artillery, and was supported by a robust supply chain.

Role of Cavalry:

• The cavalry was a critical component of the army, with each trooper responsible for providing their own horse.
• The dagh system was employed to maintain quality, with the state inspecting and branding horses for military use.
• Infantry troops were primarily equipped with matchlocks and were organized into various classes, with salaries ranging from 110 to 300 dams per month.

Artillery and Technology:

• Artillery saw significant advancements under Akbar, including improvements in the manufacturing and transport of guns.
• Wheeled carriages for artillery were enhanced, and innovative designs allowed multiple guns to be fired in succession.

Support Roles:

• Support roles such as bearers,carpenters,blacksmiths, and water-carriers were vital for the army's efficiency, although they are often confused with frontline fighters.
• The inclusion of palace guards and spies further strengthened the army's operational capability.

Assessment of Army Strength:

• Historical accounts, such as those by Monserrate, provide estimates of the army's strength, including 45,000 cavalry,5,000 elephants, and numerous infantry.
• However, accurately gauging the full strength of the Mughal army remains challenging due to the complexities of the mansabdari system and the variability in troops maintained by different officers.