Mughal Administration | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• To maintain control over various parts of the Mughal Empire and manage elements that challenged Mughal authority.

Challenges:

• The Empire was diverse, with different groups of people in each region. Local rulers and chieftains had significant influence over these populations.

Ingenuity of the Mughal Polity:

• The Mughal administration cleverly included these resistant rulers and chieftains in its governance structure.
• Many local leaders were also recruited into military service, integrating them further into the Mughal system.

Administrative Strategy:

• To sustain its large administration, the Mughal polity aimed to collect maximum rural surplus through land revenue.
• The system was designed to efficiently appropriate this surplus, ensuring the Empire's stability and governance.

Central Administration

• Due to their brief reigns and focus on military matters, Babur and Humayun were unable to establish a definite system or pattern in administration.

Akbar's Reign:

• By the end of Akbar's reign, the Mughal administration had evolved into a well-structured system.
• Elaborate offices were established with specific functions assigned to the heads of these offices.
• Rules and regulations governing the public and private conduct of officers were fixed, transforming them into a cohesive "Apparatus of the Empire."

The Emperor

• Ancient Indian traditions favored the idea of a strong ruler.
• Muslim jurists and writers also shared this perspective.
• This made the concept of divine origin of monarchy acceptable to the Indian people.

Jharokha Darshan:

• Jharokha Darshan was a ritual where the Emperor would publicly appear at a scheduled time before the public.
• The belief was that just seeing the Emperor would help resolve their problems.
• Given this popular perception of the ruler, it was clear that all officials in the Mughal administration derived their power and position from the Emperor.
• Their appointments, promotions, demotions, and terminations were all at the Emperor's discretion.

Wakil and Wazir

• Tracing back to the Abbasi Caliphs, the institution of wizarat (or wikalat) was established.
• Delhi Sultans: The wazir held both civil and military powers. However, under Balban, the military powers were separated, diminishing the wazir's authority.
• Sher Shah: During Sher Shah's reign, the office of the wazir was nearly inactive under the Afghan rule.
• Early Mughals: The position of the wazir was revitalized. Babur’s wazir,Nizamuddin Muhammad Khalifa, had both civil and military powers. Humayun’s wazir,Hindu Beg, also possessed significant authority.
• Bairam Khan's Regency (1556-60): The wakil-wazir gained immense power under Bairam Khan.
• Akbar's Reforms: Akbar stripped the wakil of financial powers, transferring them to the diwan kul(Finance Minister). This separation weakened the wakil's authority, yet the office remained the most prestigious in the Mughal bureaucracy.

Diwani Kul

• Akbar reinforced the role of the diwan by giving him authority over revenue matters.

Chief Diwan (Diwani Kul):

• The chief diwan was in charge of revenue and finances.
• His main job was to oversee the imperial treasury and check all accounts.

Supervision and Authority:

• The chief diwan personally checked all transactions and payments across departments.
• He kept direct contact with provincial diwans and monitored their work.
• His seal and signature were required to validate all official papers related to revenue.
• He was in charge of the entire machinery for revenue collection and expenditure.
• No new appointments or promotions could happen without his seal.

Checks on Power:

• To keep the diwan in check, the Mughal Emperor required him to submit a daily report on state finances.

Central Revenue Ministry:

• The central revenue ministry was divided into various departments, such as:
• Diwani Khalisa
• Diwani Tan (for cash salary)
• Diwani Jagir
• Diwani Buyutat (royal household)

Department Structure:

• Each branch had sections led by a secretary,superintendents, and clerks.
• The mustaufi was the auditor, and the mushrif was the chief accountant.
• The khazanadar managed the Imperial treasury.

Mir Bakhshi

• In the Mughal Empire, the mir’arz position from the Delhi Sultanate was renamed mir bakhshi.
• The mir bakhshi was responsible for overseeing the appointment and salary of mansabdars military officials.
• He supervised the branding of horses(dagh) and checked the soldiers’ muster-roll (chehra).
• Based on his verification, the salary amount was certified and recorded by the diwan before being presented to the Emperor.
• The mir bakhshi was responsible for presenting new service applicants to the Emperor and dealing directly with provincial bakhshis and waqainavis.
• He accompanied the Emperor on various trips, ensuring that mansabdars were allocated proper places according to their rank.
• His duties in the darbar enhanced his prestige and influence.
• The mir bakhshi was supported by other bakhshis at the central level, including separate bakhshis for ahadis(special imperial troopers) and domestic servants of the royal household.
• The first three bakhshis were known as 1st, 2nd, and 3rd bakhshi.

Mir Saman

Responsibilities:

• As the chief executive officer, he was responsible for the purchase and storage of various articles for the royal household.
• He supervised the manufacture of different items, including weapons and articles of luxury.
• Though directly under the Emperor, he had to contact the Diwan for sanctioning money and auditing accounts.

There were several officers under the Mir Saman, including the Diwani Buyutat and the Tahvildar(cash keeper).

Sadr-us Sudur

• Duty: To protect the laws of the shari’ at.
• He was also connected with the distribution of charities – both cash (wazifa) and land grants (suyurghal, in’am, madad-i ma’ash).
• Initially as the head of the judicial department, he supervised the appointment of qazis and muftis.
• Before Shah Jahan’s reign, the posts of the chief qazi and sadr-us sudur were combined and the same person held the charge of both the departments.
• However, under Aurangzeb, the post of the chief qazi(qazi-ul quzzat) and the sadr-us sudur got separated.
• It led to sharp curtailment of sadr’s power. Now in the capacity of sadr, he supervised assignment of allowances and looked after the charitable grants.
• He also looked into whether the grants were given to the right persons and utilized properly.
• He scrutinized applications for all such grants, both fresh and renewals, and presented before the Emperor for sanction.
• Alms were also distributed through him.

Qazi-ul quzzat

• The chief qazi, known as qazi-ul quzzat, was the head of the judiciary. Before Aurangzeb's reign, his powers were combined with those of the sadr-us sudur.
• Duty: To administer shariat law in both civil and criminal cases.
• As chief qazi, he was responsible for the appointment of qazis at various levels: suba, sarkar, pargana, and town. There was also a separate qazi for the army.

Mir 'Adl:

• Another important judicial officer was mir 'adl. Abul Fazl highlighted the need for a mir 'adl alongside the qazi.
• While the qazi would hear and decide the case, the mir 'adl was responsible for executing the court's orders.

Muhtasib:

• The muhtasib, or censor of public morals, was tasked with ensuring the general observance of moral rules.
• His duties included checking forbidden practices such as wine drinking,use of bhang,gambling, and other intoxicants.
• In addition to moral enforcement, the muhtasib also performed secular duties like examining weights and measures,enforcing fair prices, and other regulatory tasks.

Provincial Administration

• Akbar divided his empire into twelve subas, which were later increased by three more.
• The administrative hierarchy was as follows:Suba (province) > Sarkar (district) > Parganas (smaller divisions) > Mahal (village or group of villages).

Shah Jahan's Innovations:

• During Shah Jahan's reign, a new administrative unit called chakla was introduced.
• A chakla was a cluster of several parganas, adding another layer to the administrative structure.
• The hierarchy for this unit was:Pargana < Chakla < Mahal.

Provincial Governor

• Directly appointed by the Emperor.
• Usually served a tenure of around three years.

Duties of the Subadar:

• Welfare of People and Army: The most important duty was to ensure the welfare of the people and the army.
• Law and Order: Responsible for maintaining general law and order in the suba.
• Encouraging Agriculture, Trade, and Commerce: A successful subadar would promote agriculture, trade, and commerce.
• Welfare Activities: Responsible for welfare activities such as constructing sarais (rest houses), gardens, wells, and water reservoirs.
• Enhancing Revenue: Tasked with taking steps to enhance the revenue of the state.

Diwan

• Appointed by the Emperor.
• Independent officer answerable to the Centre.
• Head of the revenue department in the suba.

Responsibilities:

• Supervised revenue collection and maintained accounts of expenditures, such as salaries of officials and subordinates.
• Took steps to increase the area under cultivation, including providing advance loans (taqavi) to peasants.

Record Keeping:

• Maintained a daily register (roznamcha) documenting amounts deposited in the royal treasury by revenue officials and zamindars.
• Oversaw a large number of clerks assisting in these tasks.

Mughal Strategy:

• By making the diwan independent of the subadar and placing financial matters under the diwan, the Mughals effectively prevented the subadar from gaining too much independence.

Bakhshi

• The bakhshi was appointed by the imperial court based on the recommendation of the mir bakhshi.
• He performed the same military functions as his counterpart at the Centre.
• The bakhshi was responsible for checking and inspecting the horses and soldiers maintained by the mansabdars in the suba.
• He issued the pay bills for both the mansabdars and the soldiers.
• It was his duty to prepare a list of deceased mansabdars, but often the waqai navis of the parganas directly sent this information to the provincial diwan.
• His office was often combined with that of the waqai’ nagar, where he was responsible for informing the Centre about the happenings in his provinces.
• To facilitate his work, the bakhshi posted his agents in the parganas and various important offices.

Darogha-i Dak and the Secret Services

• Importance of Communication: To effectively govern a vast empire, a robust communication network was deemed essential. A dedicated department was tasked with this crucial responsibility.
• Imperial Postal System: An imperial postal system was established to facilitate the transmission of instructions to distant regions of the empire. This same channel was used for receiving information from these areas.
• Role of Darogha-i Dak: At each suba (administrative division) headquarters, a darogha-i dak was appointed. This official was responsible for passing on letters to the court through postal runners known as mewras.
• Dak Chowkis: To aid in the postal system, numerous dak chowkis were maintained throughout the empire. These chowkis served as relay points where postal runners would hand over letters to the next runner.
• Transport Methods: In addition to runners, horses and boats were employed to ensure speedy delivery of messages.
• Waqai Navis and Waqai Nigars: These officials were appointed to provide reports directly to the Emperor.
• Sawanih Nigar: This role involved supplying confidential reports to the Emperor.
• Secret Service Reports: Many reports from secret service agents are still available today and serve as important historical sources for the period.
• Monitoring Officials: The Mughals maintained oversight over provincial officials through independent offices and institutions. Frequent visits by Mughal Emperors to each suba and the regular transfer of officials, typically every three years, also helped in monitoring these officials.
• Intelligence Network: Despite the measures in place, the potential for rebellion always existed. Therefore, a constant vigilance through an organized system of intelligence network was established to keep a check on officials.

Local Administration

Sarkars: The sarkar was a significant administrative unit, and its functioning was crucial for maintaining law, order, and revenue collection.
Faujdar: The faujdar was the executive head of the sarkar, responsible for:

• Tackling rebellions and law and order issues.
• Protecting the life and property of residents.
• Ensuring safe passage for traders.
• Monitoring zamindars (landowners).
• Assisting the amalguzar in revenue collection when necessary.

Amalguzar (or Amil): The amalguzar was the chief revenue collector, tasked with:

• Assessing and supervising revenue collection.
• Encouraging increased cultivation and voluntary tax payments.
• Maintaining all financial accounts.
• Reporting daily receipts and expenditures to the provincial diwan.

Thanedar: The thanedar was in charge of a thana, an area where military forces were stationed to maintain law and order. Their duties included:

• Providing supplies for the stationed army.
• Being appointed on the recommendation of the subadar(governor) and diwan(finance minister).
• Generally reporting to the faujdar of the area.

Subadar: The subadar was the governor of a province, responsible for overseeing law and order within the subah (province). They supervised various officials, including the faujdar and diwan.
Diwan: The diwan was the finance minister, responsible for collecting revenue and maintaining financial records. They reported to the emperor and had authority over the subah.

Pargana Administration

• Shiqqdar: The shiqqdar was the executive officer at the pargana level, assisting the amils in collecting revenue.
• Amil: The amil was responsible for revenue collection at the pargana level, with duties similar to those of the amalguzar at the sarkar level.
• Qanungo: The qanungo maintained all land records in his area and noted the different crops grown in the pargana.

Village Administration

• Muqaddam: The muqaddam served as the village headman, playing a crucial role in local administration.
• Patwari: The patwari was responsible for maintaining village revenue records, ensuring accurate documentation of land revenue and other financial matters.
• Continuity Under the Mughals: Despite the change in rulers from Sher Shah to the Mughals, the pattern of village administration remained largely consistent. The Mughals continued the administrative practices established during Sher Shah's time.

Town, fort and port administration

• The Mughals used different systems to manage cities and ports.
• For cities, they had a specific way of organizing and governing the area.
• For ports, which were crucial for trade and shipping, they set up a separate administration to handle the unique needs of these coastal areas.

Kotwal

• The imperial court appointed kotwals to oversee urban centres.

Responsibilities of Kotwals:

• Protect the life and property of townspeople.
• Maintain a register to record the entry and exit of people in the town, requiring permits for outsiders.
• Prevent the production of illicit liquor in their area.
• Supervise the weights and measures used by merchants and shopkeepers.

Qil’adar

• The Mughal Empire had many qilas(forts) spread across the country, often located in strategically important areas.
• Each fort functioned like a mini township, housing a large garrison of soldiers.
• The officer in charge of each fort was called the qil’adar.
• High-ranking mansabdars were usually appointed as qiladars.
• The qil’adar was responsible for the general administration of the fort and the areas assigned to him in his jagir.
• Sometimes, qiladars were also asked to perform the duties of a faujdar(military officer) in the region.

Port Administration

• The Mughals recognized the economic significance of sea-ports because they were hubs of active trade and commerce.
• Port administration operated independently of provincial authorities.
• The governor of the ports, known as the mutasaddi, was appointed directly by the Emperor.
• In some cases, the position of mutasaddi was auctioned off to the highest bidder.
• The mutasaddi was responsible for collecting taxes on goods, maintaining the custom-house, and supervising the mint at the port.
• Assisting the mutasaddi was the shahbandar, who primarily managed the custom-house.

The Army

• Cavalry: Soldiers on horseback.
• Infantry: Foot soldiers.
• Artillery: Units responsible for heavy weapons like cannons.
• Elephants: Used in battle for various purposes, including transport and charge.
• Camels: Used for transport and as pack animals.

Naval Force:

• There was no traditional navy.
• However, there was a fleet of boats managed by an amir-ul-bahr, meaning "Lord of the Sea" or Admiral.

Cavalry

• The dagh system was used to maintain an efficient and well-equipped force of cavalry.
• Cavalrymen were provided with choice horses from regions like Iraq,Iran, and Arabia. They were also protected by iron helmets and other defensive armor, while their horses had protective covers for their necks, chests, and backs.
• The sawars(cavalrymen) were armed with swords,lances, and bows.
• Each trooper was required to purchase his own horse and present it at the muster before receiving his pay. This practice led to significant harassment and became a source of corruption.
• To address this issue, a rule was established where a mansabdar(an officer) was granted an ad hoc pay called barawardi for his contingent upon appointment. This was later adjusted when the full pay was given to the sawars after the muster.
• However, this system also became a means of corruption, as nobles would delay the muster, maintain a nominal force, and continue to receive barawardi salaries for the full contingent.

Dakhili

• In certain instances, the state took on soldiers directly and deployed them to serve under high-ranking officials known as mansabdars.
• These state-employed soldiers were referred to as dakhili troopers.

Ahadi

• A separate group of people known as ahadi or gentlemen troopers.
• These individuals were allowed to have five horses or more and were paid handsomely for their service.
• They had their own muster-master or diwan to oversee them.
• Ahadis could be assigned anywhere in the army or serve as messengers.
• In some cases, they could even be appointed alongside a mansabdar.

Artillery

• Artillery in India advanced significantly after Babur's time, with the introduction of heavy guns mounted on forts and siege guns.
• Siege guns were challenging to move, often requiring elephants and large teams of bullocks for transportation.
• While these guns were seen as prestigious, they were slow to fire and not very effective in battles or sieges, as demonstrated during the siege of Chittor.
• To breach fortifications, mining with gunpowder became a common tactic.

Types of Artillery:
Heavy Artillery: Included siege guns, which were cumbersome and slow.
Light Artillery: Varied by method of transport:

• narnal: Carried by a man.
• gajanal: Carried by elephants.
• shutrnal: Carried by camels.

Wheeled Guns: Known as arraba, used in battles like Panipat and Khanua.

Innovations by Akbar:

• Improved the casting and transport of artillery.
• Invented a disassemblable gun for easier transport.
• Developed a method to fire 17 guns simultaneously with one match.
• Enhanced the production of hand muskets.
• Created a machine to bore and clean gun barrels using oxen.

Use of Elephants in Warfare:

Under Akbar, elephants were extensively used in warfare, serving various purposes:

• Carrying war materials and royalty.
• Forming a protective shield or battering ram in conjunction with cavalry.

However, elephants were vulnerable when surrounded by enemy cavalry.

Infantry Composition:

• Comprised both fighting and non-fighting personnel.
• Fighting Men: Mainly matchlock-men called bunduqchis, organized with clerical and financial support.
• Dakhili Soldiers: Recruited and paid by the central government, these foot-soldiers and matchlock-men were assigned to high mansabdars.
• Other roles included carpenters,blacksmiths,water-carriers,pioneers,message runners,palki-bearers,wrestlers, and slaves.

Strength of Akbar’s army

• There are 45,000 cavalry,5,000 elephants, and many thousands of infantry, all paid directly from the royal treasury.
• The strength of the cavalry maintained by the mansabdars is difficult to assess because initially, a mansab did not reflect the actual number of sawars maintained. Later, only a few sawar ranks were recorded.
• It can be said that the number of sawars maintained by the mansabdars would not have been less than those maintained centrally.

Nature of Mughal Administration

• Irfan Habib and Athar Ali believe the Mughal administrative system was very centralized.
• They see this centralization in the land revenue system,mansab and jagir systems, and uniform coinage.
• Stephen P. Blake and J.F. Richards acknowledge the centralizing aspects but describe the Mughal Empire as ‘patrimonial bureaucratics’, emphasizing the role of the imperial household and the large bureaucracy.
• Streusand and Chetan Singh argue that, despite centralization, the Mughal structure was less centralized at the periphery.
• Chetan Singh also believes that during the 17th century, the Mughal Empire was not as centralized as it seemed. He argues that jagir transfers were not as frequent, and local elements at the periphery had a significant influence on central policies.