Factors leading to the birth of Indian Nationalism | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Resentment Against British Rule in India

As the British expanded their empire in India, a deep sense of resentment grew among the people, characterized by a sullen and discontented mood. This discontent stemmed from several factors:

• Economic Hardship: Many Indians believed that the British rulers were directly responsible for their economic struggles. The new administration was seen as a contributor to their worsening financial situation.
• Loss of Dignity: There was a widespread feeling of being looked down upon in their own country. The British presence was perceived as a threat to their way of life and dignity, leading to a sense of humiliation.
• Limited Opportunities: The opportunities for social and economic advancement were viewed as insufficient under British rule, further fueling resentment.

The lower strata of the social and economic hierarchy expressed their discontent through sporadic uprisings. These uprisings were often directed against immediate exploiters such as zamindars (landlords), sabukars (middlemen), tax collectors. However, these protests were also fundamentally against the British system of governance.

The intensity of discontent against foreign rule became evident through these uprisings. In fact, the great revolt of 1857 can be seen as an outburst of accumulated discontent from various parts of the country, reflecting the widespread dissatisfaction with British rule.

Background and Causes of the Birth of Indian Nationalism and Foundation of the INC

Failure of the Revolt (1857) and the Rise of the Middle Class:

• The failure of the 1857 Revolt highlighted the limitations of traditional methods of protest and indicated that the old aristocratic classes could not be the saviors of Indian society. Instead, the English-educated Indian middle class emerged as the hope for the future.
• This middle class recognized the benefits of British rule and initially adopted a positive outlook towards colonial governance. They understood that being under the rule of the most advanced country in the world could bring significant advantages to India.
• The middle class believed that British rule could transform India into a major industrial power, leveraging its vast natural and human resources. They were also familiar with European liberal ideas of the time while taking pride in India's glorious past. Over time, they developed the understanding that foreign domination was inherently opposed to the legitimate hopes and aspirations of the Indian people.
• Thus, the foundations of the Indian national movement were laid by this emerging group of modern intelligentsia.
• Neo-social classes, including the middle class, Indian traders and business communities, landlords, money lenders, educated Indians in lower posts, each with different interests, realized that their needs could not be met under British rule.
• These groups played a crucial role in fostering a sense of patriotism among the people. The consciousness of this neo-social class was expressed through the formation of various associations before the establishment of the All India National Congress.
• Ultimately, the Indian National Congress became a platform for organizing the national movement.
• Initially, middle-class agitation focused on expressing specific political and economic grievances, believing that their concerns would be addressed by the benevolent rulers if brought to their attention. However, this phase was eventually left behind as the movement evolved.

Political and Administrative Unity:

• The British conquest of India led to the establishment of a centralized state, which brought about political and administrative unification of the country.
• Before British rule, India was divided into numerous feudal states that oftenstruggled among themselves to expand their boundaries. The British authority imposed a centralized state structure with a uniform reign of law.

English Language and Western Education:

• The introduction of Western education was a crucial factor in fostering national consciousness. The British Government played a central role in disseminating modern liberal and technical education, establishing a network of schools and colleges that produced educated Indians.
• English education was seen as a means to promote scientific and democratic thought, English-educated Indians like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Vivekananda, Gokhale, Dadabhai Naroji, Feroz Shah Mehta, Surendra Nath Banerjee led various social, religious, political movements.
• The English language became the medium of communication among educated Indians, facilitating the exchange of ideas and fostering a democratic and rationalist outlook. It also served as a bridge to Western ideas, culture, institutions.
• Through English, educated Indians were exposed to the philosophical ideas of thinkers like Milton, J.S. Mill, Thomas Paine, John Locke, Rousseau, Mazzini, Garibaldi, contributing to the growth of national consciousness.
• Modern education, while initially motivated by British political, administrative, economic needs, ultimately played a significant role in the political awakening and organization of political movements in India.

Development of Transport and Means of Communication:

• Modern transport plays a crucial role in bringing people together to form unified nations.
• In India, the establishment of railways, construction of roads,canals, the organization of postal,telegraph, wiresless services across the country helped forge a sense of nationhood. These developments, however, primarily served the interests of British industries and were driven by political,administrative, military needs.
• Despite being implemented for colonial purposes, modern means of communication significantly contributed to the growth of political and cultural life on a national scale.
• These advancements facilitated the organization and functioning of various political groups, such as the Indian National Congress,All India Kishan Sabha,Youth League, All India Trade Union Congress.
• Railways enabled people from different towns, villages, districts, provinces to meet, share ideas, plan activities for nationalist movements.
• Without modern transport, organizing national conferences would have been nearly impossible.

Emergence of Modern Press:

• The press emerged as a strong social institution, enabling rapid mass communication and thought exchange. The arrival of the printing press in India marked a revolutionary turning point.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the Nationalist Press:

• Raja Ram Mohan Roy is recognized as the pioneer of the nationalist press in India.
• His publications, such as Sambad Kaumudi(1821) in Bengali and Mirat-UL-Akbar(1822) in Persian, were among the first to promote a distinct nationalist and democratic progressive agenda.

Critique of British Policies:

• The press criticized British policies for worsening the economic conditions of the Indian populace.
• It emphasized the importance of Swadeshi goods and local products.
• The play Nildarpan, written by Dina Bandhu Mitra around 1860, illustrated the suffering of indigo peasants and the abuses by indigo planters.

Cultural Reflections of Nationalism:

• Writers like Bankim Chatterjee used historical novels to highlight the oppression of colonial rule.
• Chatterjee’s novel Anandmath(1882) included the famous song Bande Mataram, originally composed in 1875.
• Similar patriotic sentiments were expressed in various regional literatures, such as in the works of Harish Chandra, the father of modern Hindi, who advocated for Swadeshi through his plays, poems, journalistic writings.

Role of Newspapers and Journals:

• Newspapers and journals were instrumental in shaping public opinion in favor of Indian national interests and against colonial injustices.
• Prominent English-language newspapers included Amrit Bazaar Patrika,Hindu Patriot, Som Prakash from Calcutta,Indu Prakash and Native Opinion from Bombay, The Hindu from Madras.
• Important Hindi newspapers included Hinduatan,Bharat Mitra, Jagat Mitra, with numerous publications in other languages like Urdu.
• Other notable newspapers such as The Bengali,The Bombay Chronicle,The Tribune,The Indian Mirror,The Pioneer,The Madras Mail,The Maratha, The Keshari played crucial roles in critiquing British governance.
• The Free Press News Service was significant in distributing news from a nationalist perspective.

Political Education and Propaganda:

• The press facilitated political education and propaganda, allowing nationalist groups to promote ideas of representative government and raise awareness about global events.
• Nationalists were keen on protecting press independence. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was one of the first to advocate for this in the Supreme Court of Calcutta, alongside other nationalists like Dwarkanath Tagore,Harchandra Ghose,Chandra Kumar Tagore, Prasanna Kumar Tagore.
• The fight for press freedom became a vital part of India’s national movement.

Economic Exploitation:

• The most negative aspect of British rule in India was the economic exploitation of all classes. The British initially came to India as traders with the primary goal of financial gain.
• The Industrial Revolution in Britain created a demand for raw materials from various countries and a need for markets to sell British goods. India served as both a source of raw materials and a market for British products.
• The British government funded its civil service and military in India through the country’s resources.
• The British aimed to weaken indigenous Indian industries to increase the demand for British goods.
• Heavy import duties were imposed on Indian goods to limit their entry into Britain, while a free trade policy was established for raw materials and British goods in India.
• Indian leaders such as Dadabhai Naroji,Mahadev Gobinda Ranade, G.K. Gokhale examined the economic effects of colonial rule.
• The extent of economic exploitation significantly contributed to the rise of Indian nationalism, leading to increased agitation against British rule.

Revival of Glorious Indian Heritage:

• During a time when Indians were feeling a sense of inferiority under colonial rule, some Western scholars like Max Muller,William Jones, Charles Wilkins revived India’s glorious heritage by translating Sanskrit texts into English and demonstrating the superiority of ancient Indian culture and philosophy.
• Indian scholars such as R.G. Bhandarkar and H.P. Shastri also played a role in this revival.
• This revival instilled a sense of self-confidence and patriotism among the Indian people.

Impact of International Events:

• Various movements and events in foreign countries played a significant role in awakening national consciousness in India.
• The Declaration of Independence by the U.S.A. in 1776, the French Revolution of 1789, the unification of Italy and Germany in 1870, the defeat of Russia by Japan in 1904 inspired Indians.
• These events instilled confidence in Indians that it was possible to challenge British authority for their right to self-determination.
• World events served as motivation for Indians and contributed to the rise of nationalism.

Social and Religious Reform Movements:

• The social and religious reform movements in India during British rule were expressions of the growing national consciousness among the people.
• The new educated class, influenced by liberal Western culture, recognized the need to reform social institutions and religious beliefs, viewing them as obstacles to national progress.
• Organizations such as Arya Samaj, Brahmo Samaj, Rama Krishna Mission, the Theosophical Society played a crucial role in bringing about reform and renaissance movements in India.
• These movements aimed to eliminate privilege from social and religious spheres, democratize social and religious institutions, promote individual liberty and social equality.
• They sought to establish equal rights for all individuals, regardless of caste or gender.
• The national democratic awakening found expression in various fields of national life, giving rise to movements for administrative reform, self-government, Home Rule, ultimately independence.

Racial Arrogance and Repressive Policies of the British:

• The Britishers' racial arrogance and rude behavior towards Indians played a crucial role in making them aware of their situation.
• The British Government restricted educated Indians from accessing opportunities for higher administrative positions.
• The age limit for the Indian Civil Service examination was lowered from twenty-one to nineteen years, with the examination being held in Britain. This change was intended to prevent Indians from entering the civil services.
• The enactment of various laws further fueled widespread discontent among Indians, exposing the racial discrimination policies of the British Government.
• Lord Curzon implemented measures that hurt the self-respect of Indians and ordered the partition of Bengal to suppress the rising Indian nationalism.
• The partition order sparked widespread resentment among the people. The use of 'Swadeshi' goods and the boycott of foreign goods became effective methods for expressing this resentment.
• The Indians' resentment against the repressive policies and racial arrogance of the British authorities played a significant role in strengthening Indian nationalism.

The Ilbert Bill Controversy:

• During Lord Ripon's time as Viceroy, the Ilbert Bill was introduced. This bill aimed to empower Indian judges to try cases involving Europeans.
• The bill sparked protests among the European community in India. Due to their pressure, the bill was amended to stipulate that an Indian judge could only try a European in the presence of a European witness.
• This amendment revealed the racial bias of the British authorities and highlighted their malicious intent.

The Atrocities of Lord Lytton

• Lord Lytton's administration sowed discord among the Indian populace. In 1877, during a time of famine, he held a grand ceremony in Delhi when Queen Victoria was proclaimed Kaiser-e Hind (Empress of India).
• The abolition of the import tax on foreign cotton cloth negatively impacted the Indian textile industry. He imposed heavy taxes on Indians and spent a significant amount on the Afghan war.
• Under his rule, the Arms Act of 1878 was enacted, which prohibited Indians from possessing arms without a license.
• The Vernacular Press Act of 1878, introduced by Lytton, angered Indians as it restricted the freedom of the Indian press.
• In 1879, to limit the entry of Indian middle classes into the civil services, he lowered the upper age limit for candidates from 21 to 19 and established statutory civil services, reserving 1/6 of the posts for Indian princely families and the landed aristocracy.

Liberal and Progressive Policies of Lord Ripon

• Lord Ripon's reformist policies instilled a sense of hope among Indians, leading them to anticipate greater reforms.
• In 1881, the first Indian Factory Act was enacted, regulating working hours for women and children.
• In 1882, the statutory civil services were abolished, the Indian Famine Code was introduced. The first Famine Commission, headed by Sir Richard Strachey, was appointed in 1878.
• In the same year, the Vernacular Press Act was repealed.
• Ripon also mandated compulsory grants to autonomous bodies, earning him the title of the father of modern self-governance.
• In 1883, he promoted equality before the law by introducing the Ilbert Bill.

Formation of Associations:

• Political awakening and the feeling of unity were on the rise, marking the start of organized political activities in India with the formation of the Land Holder’s Society in 1837.
• Land Holder’s Society (1837): This association of landholders from Bengal, Orissa, Bihar aimed to protect class interests.
• Bengal British India Society (1843): Founded to safeguard general public interests, representing the aristocracy of intelligence.
• Bombay Association and Madras Association (1852): Established alongside other associations, dominated by the wealthy landed aristocracy.
• Political Suggestions: The presidency associations suggested political changes to the East India Company, advocating for Indian appointments in legislative bodies, the abolition of the Company’s monopoly on salt and indigo, increased local government powers, better conditions for peasants.
• During the 1860s and 70s, various political associations emerged, promoting reform and political consciousness among different sections of Indian society.
• Poona Sarwajanic Sabha (1870): Founded by M.G. Ranade and others, it played a crucial role in raising political awareness.
• East India Association (1866): Founded by Indian students like Feroz Shah Metha and Dadabhai Naroji to promote political consciousness.
• Indian Association (1876): Formed in Calcutta to foster Hindu-Muslim unity and generate awareness among the Indian populace.
• Various political societies, including Madras Mahajan Sabha,Bombay Presidency Association,Allahabad People Association, Indian Association of Lahore, emerged, many becoming regional arms of the Congress after 1885.

Different views on “Indian Nationalism” which is said to be developed during the British rule

Indian Nationalism and Colonial Modernity:

• Indian nationalism in the 19th century, which challenged British imperialism, was seen as a product of colonial modernity.
• The British colonizers claimed to uplift the colonized from backwardness to modernity. In response, Indians needed to prove their capability for self-rule within a modern state framework.
• Indian nationalism faced two main challenges:
• Forging national unity
• Claiming the right to self-determination

How Indians Imagined Their Nation

First View:

• Partha Chatterjee argued that Indian nationalism, while privileged by Western-educated leaders, was a "derivative discourse" from the West.
• Ashis Nandy also believed that Indian nationalism was shaped by its response to Western imperialism.

Second View:

• C.A. Bayly suggested that Indian nationalism built on pre-existing territoriality and traditional patriotism.

Third View:

• The early nationalist school emphasized the supremacy of nationalist ideology and consciousness, assuming all other forms of consciousness were secondary.
• This awareness was based on a shared dislike of colonial rule, patriotism, and pride in India's ancient traditions.
• This school overlooked internal conflicts within Indian society, which eventually led to the division into two nation-states.
• It treated the nation as a homogeneous entity with a single set of interests.

Fourth View: The "Neo-Traditionalist" School

• Indian society politicized along traditional social formations like linguistic regions, castes, or religious communities.
• Colonial state innovations, such as Western education and political representation, were crucial catalysts of change.
• These innovations intersected with traditional Indian social divisions, creating a new status group—the Western-educated elite.
• This elite included members from existing privileged groups, like the bhadralok in Bengal, Chitpavan Brahmans in Bombay, and Tamil Brahmans of Madras.
• Underprivileged groups or backward regions were excluded from this limited political nation until Mahatma Gandhi's mass nationalism era.

Fifth View: The 'Cambridge School'

• Neo-traditionalist historians examined Indian politics within provincial boundaries.
• The Cambridge School delves deeper into localities.
• They challenge the idea of a unified nationalist movement.
• Colonial India was marked by a series of localized movements.
• The National Movement was driven by self-serving leaders.
• These leaders pursued narrow individual or clannish interests.
• They bargained with the British for power and patronage.
• India was portrayed not as a nation but as a collection of disparate interest groups.

Criticism of the Cambridge School:

• The Cambridge School is criticized for downplaying the role of nationalistic ideology and framing nationalist politics as a competition-collaboration dynamic.
• It is accused of reducing the nationalist movement to the level of "Animal Politics."

Sixth View: The Orthodox Marxist School:

• The Orthodox Marxist School analyzes the class character of the nationalist movement.
• It links the movement to the economic developments of the colonial period.
• This includes the rise of industrial capitalism and the evolution of a market society in India.
• This perspective identifies the bourgeois leadership as directing the movement to serve their own class interests.
• Often, this leadership neglects or betrays the interests of the masses.
• Early Marxists like R.P. Dutt had a narrow class approach and economic determinism.
• Later Marxist scholars such as S.N. Mukherjee, Sumit Sarkar, and Bipin Chandra offered more nuanced critiques.

Seventh View: Later Marxist Writings:

S.N. Mukherjee

• He emphasized the complexities of nationalism, highlighting its multiple layers and meanings.
• He pointed out the significance of caste along with class in understanding Indian society.
• He noted the simultaneous use of both traditional and modern languages in politics.

Sumit Sarkar:

• He acknowledges the legitimacy of nationalism but also emphasizes the internal tensions within it.
• Sarkar identifies two levels of anti-imperialist struggles in India: elite and populist. He argues for understanding the complex interaction between these two levels.

Bipin Chandra:

• Chandra offers a Marxist interpretation with a nationalist orientation.
• He contends that the Indian nationalist movement was a popular movement involving various classes, not solely dominated by the bourgeoisie.
• In colonial India, two types of contradictions were evident:
  (i) The primary contradiction was between the interests of the Indian people and those of British rule.
  (ii) Secondary contradictions existed within Indian society, among different classes,castes, religious communities.
• As the anti-colonial struggle progressed, secondary contradictions were compromised to prioritize the primary contradiction, leading to the establishment of a nationalist ideology.
• The nationalist movement was not dominated by a single class,caste, or religious community. It involved various groups with conflicting interests, necessitating constant compromises to prevent class,caste, or communal conflicts.
• Consequently, the Indian nationalist movement became a people's movement, despite the unresolved secondary conflicts.

8th view: Subaltern views (Ranajit Guha):

• Ranajit Guha argues that the study of Indian nationalism has been dominated by elitism.
• He suggests that the contributions of the common people have been neglected.
• According to Guha, nationalism was shaped more by the masses, termed the 'subalterns', than by the elite.
• This perspective indicates that the organized national movement leading to the Indian nation-state was driven by elite nationalism.
• The true essence of nationalism came from the masses.
• Although the subalterns occasionally joined political movements led by the bourgeoisie, the latter did not represent the nation effectively.
• The bourgeois leadership struggled to establish its dominance convincingly.
• It was constantly challenged by the peasantry and working class, who had different forms of mobilization and action.
• While the new nation-state reflected the dominance of the bourgeoisie and its ideology, it exemplified "dominance without hegemony".

Shift in Subaltern Studies:

• Sumit Sarkar noted the decline of the subaltern focus in Subaltern Studies, as the approach expanded to include the politics of the colonial intelligentsia.
• Dipesh Chakrabarty argued that even elite and dominant groups can have a subaltern past, justifying the shift in focus.
• Partha Chatterjee suggested studying elite and subaltern politics not separately but in their "mutually conditioned historicity."

Conclusion

• Indian nationalism is a contested and complex field, making it challenging to find a middle ground or a universally acceptable view.
• While British rule aimed to colonize Indian minds, Indians also adapted and manipulated colonial knowledge to resist colonial control.
• India's pluralistic society led to multiple interpretations of the 'nation' by different classes, groups, communities, regions, each having their own, sometimes conflicting, perspectives.