Vardhana Dynasty: Harshavardhana | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Formation of New Kingdoms:

• After the Gupta Empire fell, India was divided into many small kingdoms.
• The Huns gained control over Punjab and parts of central India.
• The northern and western regions were ruled by various feudal lords.
• One of these feudal lords,Prabhakar Vardhana of Thanesar, gradually became the most powerful.

Rise of the Vardhana Dynasty:

• Prabhakar Vardhana founded the Vardhana dynasty after becoming the dominant ruler.
• Another significant family was the Pushyabhutis, with their capital at Thanesar.
• Prabhakar Vardhana strengthened his rule in Punjab and Haryana by defeating the Huns.

Marriage Alliance:

• Some scholars believe that the Vardhanas were once under the Maukhari king of Kannauj.
• Prabhakar Vardhana’s daughte r Rajyashri married Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler.
• This marriage greatly boosted Prabhakar Vardhana’s political status.
• He took on the imperial title Parama-bhattaraka Maharajadhiraja, meaning "the one to whom other kings bow because of his valor and affection."

Succession and Challenges:

• Prabhakar Vardhana was succeeded by his elder son Rajyavardhana, Harsha’s brother.
• After Prabhakar Vardhana’s death, the Harshacharita describes how Devagupta, the king of Malava, attacked Kannauj with support from Shashanka, the ruler of Gauda.
• Devagupta killed Grahavarman and captured Rajyashri.

Rajyavardhana's Revenge:

• Rajyavardhana, the king of Thanesar and Prabhakar Vardhana’s son, could not accept the insult to his family.
• He marched against Devagupta, defeating him.
• However, Rajyavardhana was treacherously killed by Shashanka, who had allied with Devagupta.

Harsha's Ascendancy:

• After Rajyavardhana’s death, his brother Harshavardhana became the ruler of both Thanesar and Kannauj in AD 606 at the age of sixteen.
• He rescued his sister Rajyashri from committing sati and united the two kingdoms.
• Harsha moved the capital to Kannauj.

Conflict with Shashanka:

• Shashanka continued to rule Gauda, frequently clashing with Harsha.
• Shashanka was known for desecrating Buddhist stupas in Bengal and persecuting Buddhists.

Historical Sources:

• Major sources of information about Harsha’s life include copper plates from rivals like Harsha and Bhaskaravarman, the accounts of Banabhatta in the Harshacharita, and the writings of the Chinese monk Xuanzang.
• Coins minted during Shashanka’s reign also provide historical insights.

Harshavardhana (606 A.D - 647 A.D)

Harshavardhana, often referred to as Harsha, ruled northern India for 41 years, from 606 A.D. to 647 A.D. He is known for uniting the kingdoms of Thanesar (in present-day Haryana) and Kannauj, eventually making Kannauj his capital.

His reign is well-documented, primarily through the works of his court poet, Bana, and the Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang).

Military Campaigns and Expansion:

• Harsha waged numerous wars to expand his empire. He brought under his control the regions known as the Five Indias: eastern Punjab (present-day Haryana), Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• He conquered the Vallabhi King Dhruvasena in Gujarat and parts of modern Orissa, including Ganjam.
• Harsha made attempts to extend his rule into South India.

Despite his vast conquests, he was not the ruler of all North India. Regions like Kashmir, Western Punjab, Sindh, Gujarat, Rajputana, Nepal, Eastern and Northern Bengal, and Kamrupa (Assam) were outside his control. However, his empire stretched from Punjab to Orissa, showcasing his military prowess.

Xuanzang and other historical records referred to Harsha as the "Lord of Northern India" or "Sakalottarpatha natha," highlighting his dominance over much of northern India.

Harsha's expansion was remarkable, but his success was eventually challenged by Pulakesi II, the emperor of the Chalukya dynasty in South India.

Harsha's period was marked by a multitude of smaller kingdoms, with Xuanzang noting around seventy such kingdoms in India at the time.

Sources of Information:

• Bana's work, Harshacharita, is considered the first historical poetic account in Sanskrit, detailing Harsha's rise to power.
• Xuanzang's texts provide a comprehensive description of his travels in India during Harsha's reign.

In summary, Harshavardhana was a significant figure in Indian history, known for his military conquests and the unification of northern India, despite the limitations of his empire.

Extent of Harsha's Empire

• Between 606 and 612 A.D., Harsha expanded his empire to cover most of northern India, including Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. He took on the title of Siladitya during this time. The Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang claimed that Harsha conquered all of India within the first six years of his reign. However, this assertion should not be taken at face value. Harsha did not fully control even North India, and his military campaigns were not confined to the initial years of his rule.
• Harsha's first major campaign was against Bengal, but it was not entirely successful. Evidence suggests that Sasanka continued to govern most of Bengal and Orissa until 637 A.D. It was only after Sasanka's death that Harsha was able to achieve his objectives in these regions. Harsha also exerted influence over the kings of Jalandhar and possibly Kashmir.
• In western India, Harsha initially had good relations with the rulers of Valabhi. However, disputes over Malwa led to conflicts between them. Eventually, Harsha defeated the Valabhi ruler, Dhruvasena II, who then became a vassal under Harsha. The hostilities with Valabhi were resolved through a marriage alliance.
• There are differing opinions regarding Harsha's conquest of Nepal. Some inscriptions suggest that Harsha may have subdued Nepal during his reign. Harsha was also successful in his eastern campaigns. A Chinese account from 641 A.D. refers to him as the king of Magadha. The king of Kamarupa, Bhaskaravarman, was an ally of Harsha and assisted him in his campaigns in Bengal and other eastern regions, contributing to Harsha's control over Bengal and Orissa. Harsha also achieved victories against the ruler of Sindh in the northwest.
• In the south, the Narmada River served as the boundary between Harsha's empire and the territory ruled by Pulakesin II. Historian Dr. K.M. Panikkar described Harsha's empire as stretching from Kamarupa in the east to Kashmir in the west, and from the Himalayas in the north to the Vindhyas in the south. However, Dr. R.C. Majumdar disagreed with this view, arguing that Harsha's empire included only Eastern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Orissa. While Harsha's power was acknowledged by neighboring states, regions like Kashmir, Western Punjab, Sindh, Rajputana, Nepal, and Kamarupa remained independent during his reign.
• Despite these limitations, Harsha is remembered as a powerful emperor who managed to unify a significant part of Northern India following the decline of the Gupta Empire. His control extended over most of Northern and Central India, with actual governance in the Gangetic plain. Peripheral regions were often ruled by vassal rulers, and Harsha's relationships with neighboring states were shaped by the political needs of his empire.

Can Harsha Be Considered a Great Conqueror?

• Banabhatta and Hiuen Tsang have portrayed Harsha as one of the greatest rulers of Northern India. Many modern historians agree with this view, concluding that Harsha was the last significant empire-builder of the Hindu period, marking the end of successful attempts to restore political unity in India. However, Dr. R.C. Majumdar acknowledges Harsha as a powerful ruler but does not consider him one of the last empire-builders or Hindu rulers of India.
• Dr. Majumdar argues that empires like Lalitaditva in Kashmir, Yasovarman in Kannauj, and the Kalachuri dynasty were comparable to Harsha's in territorial extent. Moreover, the Pala and Pratihara dynasties had more extensive and durable empires than Harsha's. In the South, rulers like Dhruva and Govinda III of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, Vikramaditya VI of the Chalukya dynasty, and Rajendra of the Chola dynasty established far more extensive empires than Harsha.
• Dr. Majumdar believes it would be unjust to label Harsha as the last empire-builder of Hindu India. Nevertheless, he acknowledges Harsha's virtues, praising him as a great ruler, a brave military leader, a patron of arts and letters, and a man of noble impulses and distinguished personality. Dr. Majumdar's opinion is now widely accepted as being based on facts.

Harsha's Achievements and Challenges:

• Harsha was a brave ruler with practical statesmanship, which helped him establish a vast empire in Northern India.
• He succeeded his brother when the kingdom of Thaneswar was one of several equally powerful kingdoms in Northern India, facing critical challenges.
• With enemies to the northwest and west, and Deva Gupta of Malwa and Sasanka of Bengal having killed his brother and brother-in-law, Harsha's position was precarious.
• Despite these challenges, Harsha took bold steps and pursued an aggressive policy, forming alliances and expanding his territory.
• He allied with Bhaskara Varman, the ruler of Kamrupa, occupied Kannauj, Bihar, Orissa, and West Bengal, and fought against the ruler of Vallabhi, strengthening his position in the North.
• However, his attempts to expand into the Deccan were thwarted by Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king.
• Harsha created a powerful and extensive empire in Northern India during his time, earning his place as one of the empire-builders of the region.

While Harsha was a capable commander, he was not a military genius or a great conqueror. He struggled against Sasanka and was possibly defeated by Pulakesin II. His friendship with the ruler of Vallabhi was secured through a matrimonial alliance. Despite not being a successful military commander, Harsha was respected by neighboring rulers, who chose to befriend him rather than attack his kingdom.

Harsha is regarded as a capable ruler and holds a respectable place among the rulers of ancient India. However, he is neither considered the last great empire-builder nor a great emperor of ancient India. He failed to provide the unity and emotional integrity necessary for an enduring empire, leading to the fragmentation of his empire shortly after his death. Harsha's success was personal and short-lived, lacking the qualities needed for lasting progress and unity in India. While he may not rank among the great emperors of India, he is rightly acknowledged as one of the great rulers of his time.

Harsha's Relations with Contemporary Rulers

Sasanka:

• Sasanka, the Gauda king, and Devagupta, the Malava king, troubled Harsha by killing Grahavarman, the Maukhari king and Harsha's brother-in-law.
• They captured Kannauj, leading to the death of Rajyavardhana, Harsha's elder brother, in the enemy camp.
• After rescuing his sister and Grahavarman's widowed queen Rajyasri, Harsha was offered the throne by the Maukharis' ministers, as there was no successor.
• Harsha occupied the throne of Kannauj, ruling over the territories of the Pushyabhutis and the Maukharis.
• He vowed to take revenge on Sasanka and invaded the eastern kingdoms that refused allegiance to him.
• However, neither Banabhatta nor Hiuen Tsang provide details about the actual conflict between Sasanka and Harsha.
• Hiuen Tsang notes that before 637-638 CE, Sasanka had cut down the Bodhi tree at Gaya, a sacred symbol for Buddhists. This act suggests Sasanka's occupation of the Gaya region.
• Hiuen Tsang also indicates that Harsha conquered northern, eastern, and southern Odisha by 643 CE.
• Therefore, it appears that Harsha did not achieve success in eastern India before Sasanka's death around 637 CE.

Bhaskaravarman:

• Bhaskaravarman was the ruler of Kamarupa and maintained friendly relations with Harsha.
• The alliance with Bhaskaravarman provided Harsha with the support of a powerful ruler in both external and internal affairs.
• The Harsha Charita, written by Bana, describes how Bhaskaravarman sent an envoy to Harsha, establishing an offensive and defensive alliance between the two kings.
• This alliance was crucial for Harsha in his conflict against the alliance of the Gauda and East Malwa.
• After Sasanka's death, the armies of Harsha and Bhaskaravarman attacked Bengal, successfully occupying the regions of East and West Bengal.

Kingdoms of Valabhi and Gurjara:

• The kingdom of Valabhi in Saurashtra was ruled by the Maitrakas, who were vassals of the Guptas.
• The relationship between Harsha and the Maitraka dynasty was complex, as inscriptions from the Gurjara kings of Broach suggest conflict between Harsha and the Valabhi ruler.
• Harsha is believed to have overpowered the Valabhi ruler, leading to a conflict between Harsha and Pulakesin II.
• Originally, the Latas, Malavas, and Gurjaras occupied a strategic position between Harsha and Pulakesin II, with Pulakesin claiming these rulers as his vassals.
• After Harsha's conquest of Valabhi, peace was likely established through a matrimonial alliance between Harsha and Dhruvasena II Baladitya of the Maitraka dynasty.
• This alliance is thought to have weakened Pulakesin's influence over Dhruvasena II.
• Some scholars, like Dr. R. C. Majumdar, believe that Harsha gave his daughter to the King of Valabhi, while others contend that the King of Valabhi recognized Harsha as his suzerain.
• There are differing opinions on the outcome of Harsha's conflict with the King of Valabhi, with some suggesting that Harsha entered into a matrimonial alliance due to his lack of success in the conflict.

Pulakesin II:

• The kingdoms of Harsha and Pulakesin II bordered each other along the Narmada River.
• Pulakesin II claimed in his Aihole inscription that Harsha was defeated in battle, causing his joy (harsha) to melt away.
• According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha initiated conflicts with Pulakesin II but did not achieve significant success.
• Pulakesin II's successors claimed he acquired the title of Parameshvara by defeating Harsha.

Ruler of Sind:

• The ruler of Sind was hostile to Prabhakaravardhan and continued to be a conflict during Harsha's reign.
• Harsha is said to have been victorious against the ruler of Sind, but the details are uncertain.
• Dr. Raychaudhuri suggests that Harsha may have led a campaign against Sind, but Hiuen Tsang indicates that Sind was a strong and independent kingdom during his visit.
• Bana is not explicit about the outcome of the conflict, stating that Harsha defeated the King of Sindhu and appropriated his fortune.
• Harsha also established control over Kashmir, with its ruler sending tributes to him.
• Opinions differ regarding Harsha's conquest of Nepal, with some inscriptions suggesting he subdued Nepal.
• However, the kingdoms of Sind, Kashmir, and Nepal remained independent of Harsha's influence.
• Harsha maintained diplomatic relations with the Chinese empire, sending a Brahmin envoy to the Tang Emperor Tai Tsung in 641 A.D.
• Envoys from each country visited each other after diplomatic relations were established by Xuanzang, who spent eight years in Harsha's dominions.
• Harsha's diplomatic relations with China were likely a counter to Pulakesin II's friendship with the king of Persia.

Administrative Units

Harsha's administration was similar to that of the Gupta Empire in its structure.

• Bhukti: The kingdom was divided into various provinces or divisions called Bhukti.
• Visayas: Each Bhukti was further divided into Visayas, which corresponded to modern districts.
• Pathaka: Pathaka was a smaller territorial unit, possibly similar in size to the present-day taluk.
• Grama: The Grama was the lowest unit of administration.

Administration of Harsha

• The administration of Harsha Vardhana was characterized by despotism, where the sovereign was the center of the state, and the success of administration depended on the ruler's ability and benevolence. Theoretically, Harsha ruled as an autocrat, but in practice, his rule was one of enlightened despotism.
• While the king had significant power, the ministers and the village community acted as checks on his authority. The people lived in peace and happiness, and the king was known for his charities to the poor. However, despite Harsha's efficient administration, it was not as all-encompassing as that of the Mauryas or the Guptas.

Civil Administration:

• According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha divided his day into three periods: one for state affairs and two for religious works. The civil administration under Harsha Vardhana was highly praised. The king personally supervised the administration instead of relying solely on bureaucrats.
• He frequently toured the provinces, administering justice and maintaining contact with the people. Rural and urban areas received equal attention during his inspections. Harsha suspended his tours during the rainy season due to weather and communication difficulties, and temporary buildings were prepared for his stay while on tour.
• When the king halted at any location, people could present their grievances to him. Hiuen Tsang noted that during Harsha's reign, there were very few criminals and rebels. Offenders were strictly punished, with methods such as mutilation, banishment, imprisonment, and trial by ordeal.

Military Administration:

• Harsha maintained a well-organized standing army, which included elephants,camels,cavalry, and infantry. The cavalry and elephant corps had separate commanders, with the head of the cavalry called Brihadasvavaru. Hiuen Tsang reported that Harsha had a corps of 60,000 elephants and a cavalry of 100,000. Horses were procured from regions such as Kamboja,Sindh, and Persia.

Ministers and Advisors:

• Harsha was assisted by a council of ministers known as the Mantri-Parisad, who advised him on important state affairs and foreign policy. Various high and low officials managed day-to-day governmental activities, as detailed in the Harsha Charita by Banabhatta. The superior civil service was comprised of Kumaramatyas or Cadet Ministers.
• Other ministers and officials included the Mahasandhivigrahika(supreme minister for peace and war),Mahapratihara(head of the palace guards),Simhanda(commander-in-chief),Mahabaladhikrita(commander of the forces),Mahakshapatalike(chief accounts officer),Nyayakarnika(judicial officer),Bhandagaradhikrita(superintendent of stores), and Kayastha(scribe), among others.
• According to Hiuen Tsang, Harsha was just in his administration and diligent in his duties. Society was not burdened by a heavy bureaucracy or excessive taxation. Families were not registered, and individuals were not subject to forced labor. Senior officers were often compensated with the income from specific lands, while lower-grade officers were paid in cash or land. This reflects the emergence of the Jaigirdari system of feudalism in Harsha's administrative system.

Economy during Harsha's Reign

During Harsha's reign, the economy became increasingly self-sufficient and feudal in nature, with a decline in trade and commerce. This shift is evident in the decline of trade centers, scarcity of coins, and the near disappearance of trader and merchant guilds. Initially, the economy of northern India prospered, and Harsha's capital at Kanauj was a significant center of trade. However, diminishing trade and commerce adversely affected handicrafts and other industries due to reduced demand. Agriculture was also impacted, though not directly. The lack of trade eliminated the need to produce agricultural goods for external sale, leading to a focus on producing sufficient quantities to meet local needs. This marked a shift towards self-sufficiency in the village economy and an increased reliance on agriculture.

Feudalism:

• When scholars discuss Indian feudalism, Harsha's kingdom is often cited as a typical example. Insights into Harsha's state come from the discovery of copper plates dating back to 632 CE, which record the gift of land by a military officer under Harsha's service to two Brahmins. Before Harsha's reign, donations typically came from royal princes or provincial governors. In the copper plates, the first dignitary mentioned is a Mahasamanta, who ruled a territory near Kanauj. 
• However, the land donor was a military servant of Kanauj, and the grant was executed under Harsha's authority. This suggests that Mahasamantas were independent rulers with territories close to the core area of an overlord, in this case, King Harsha. They paid tribute and provided military assistance to him. Some of these rulers obtained their territories through inheritance or conquest, while others served kings and received land grants for their official duties, resembling the feudal grant distribution in Europe.

Finance:
The primary source of income for the state was land revenue, which amounted to one-sixth of agricultural produce. While there were other taxes, they were light, and the state's demands were minimal. 
The state's income was allocated under four categories:

• Expenses for the state and ceremonial worship.
• Advancement of ministers.
• Rewards for the clever, learned, and talented individuals.
• Acquiring religious merit by spending on the heretics.

Harsha’s Coins:

• A gold coin attributed to Harsha features the legend "Harshadeva" along with the figure of a horseman.
• Harsha is referred to as "Harshadeva" not only in inscriptions but also in Bana's work "Harshacharitha."
• A collection of approximately 284 silver coins bearing the name "Sri Siladitya" has been discovered.

Harsha as a Patron of Scholars

• Harsha is credited with composing three Sanskrit dramas: "Ratnavali," "Priyadarsika," and "Nagananda."
• He also authored two significant poems on Buddhist themes: "Ashtamahasricaityastotra" (Praise to Eight Grand Chaityas) and "Suprabhatastotra" (Laud to Morning).
• Additionally, he wrote a tract on grammatical gender called "Linganusasanam."
• Although there have been disputes regarding Harsha's authorship, no decisive contrary arguments have been presented.
• Harsha's court was home to the renowned literary figure Bana, who penned "Kadambari" and "Harshacharita."
• Bana's brother-in-law, Mayura, was a celebrated poet known for works such as "Surya Sataka," "Arya Muktamala," and "Mayurastaka."
• Other scholars like Haridatta and Jayasena also received Harsha's patronage.
• Bana mentions that a group of skilled painters created auspicious scenes, but the iconoclastic zeal of early Muslim invaders has left us with no trace of these paintings or the monuments erected by Harsha.

Religion

• Prabhakaravardhana, Harsha's father, was a devotee of the Sun and is said to have offered daily a bunch of red lotuses in a ruby bowl.
• Rajyavardhana, Harsha's brother, was a Buddhist.
• Harsha himself was a devotee of Shiva, Surya, and Buddha. He is believed to have erected costly temples for the service of all three deities.
• Harsha's conversion to Buddhism is attributed by Bana to the influence of the Buddhist ascetic Divakaramitra, who lived in a hermitage in the Vindhya forests.
• However, it was the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) who played a crucial role in converting Harsha and his sister to Mahayana Buddhism through his discourse on its doctrines and criticism of Hinayana during their first meeting.
• Xuanzang, who visited Harsha's kingdom in 636, reported that Harsha built numerous stupas in honor of Buddha.
• Harsha's approach to religion is reflected in his famous play "Nagananda," which is based on the Jataka tale of the Bodhisattva Jimutavahana. In the play, Harsha introduces the Goddess Gauri as the savior of Jimutavahana, a feature not found in the original Jataka tale.
• Harsha's enthusiasm for his new faith led him to organize a grand assembly in Kanauj to promote Xuanzang's treatise on Mahayana Buddhism and establish its supremacy over other creeds of the time.
• Harsha is said to have prohibited animal slaughter and meat-eating even more rigorously than Ashoka. At Nalanda, he erected a bronze temple 100 feet high and built rest houses and hospitals along the highways.

The Kanauj Assembly

• In 643 A.D., Harsha convened an assembly at Kanauj with the aim of promoting the teachings of Buddha, taking advantage of the presence of Hiuen Tsang.
• A large number of kings attended the assembly, along with 3000 Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhist monks, 3000 Brahmanas and Nigrodhas, and about 1000 Buddhist scholars from Nalanda University.
• The assembly was presided over by Hiuen Tsang, focusing on a discussion about Mahayana Buddhism. The meeting lasted for 23 days.
• During the assembly, a monastery and shrine were erected on the banks of the Ganga, and a golden image of Buddha was placed in a tower 100 feet high.
• A smaller image, three feet in height, was carried in a daily procession, joined by 20 Rajas and 300 elephants.
• Harsha personally washed the image and participated in the procession.
• At the conclusion of the assembly, Harsha offered Hiuen Tsang gold, silver, jewels, and other valuables in recognition of his scholarship, but Hiuen Tsang refused to accept them.
• Harsha then placed Hiuen Tsang on an elephant and led him in a procession, proclaiming the establishment of Mahayana doctrines over opposing ones.

The Prayag Assembly

• Following the assembly at Kanauj, Harsha, accompanied by Hiuen Tsang, proceeded to Prayag (Allahabad) at the confluence of the Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati rivers. Here, Harsha celebrated a solemn religious festival every five years (Kumbha Mela).
• This assembly was the sixth of its kind during Harsha's reign.
• Harsha summoned his tributary kings, including the king of Vallabhi and Bhaskar Varma, the king of Assam, as well as followers of different sects, Shramanas, Nirgranthas, the poor, orphans, and the needy to attend this assembly.
• On the first day, the image of Buddha was installed in a thatched building, and precious articles and high-quality clothing were distributed as charity.
• On the second day, the image of Aditya (Sun-god) was installed, and precious articles and clothing were distributed in charity, though in smaller amounts than the previous day.
• On the third day, the image of Shiva was installed, followed by the distribution of charity and gifts similar to the previous days.
• This assembly lasted for three months.

Society during Harsha's Time

• According to the Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang, who visited India during Harsha's rule, the people were known for their honesty, courage, and love for learning. They were not deceitful or treacherous in their conduct and were faithful in their oaths and promises. 
• Personal hygiene was important to them, and they cleaned their houses with cow dung and strewn them with seasonal flowers. 
• Daily bathing and the use of scented unguents like sandal and saffron were common, and they washed their hands before meals, ensuring that fragments and remains of meals were not served again.

The Nalanda University

• Students came to India to study at various universities, including the University of Nalanda, not only from China but also from Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Java, Tibet, Ceylon, and other countries.
• Nalanda was an institute of higher learning or post-graduate studies where education was not confined to religious subjects nor limited to one religion or sect. Hindu and Buddhist literature in all their branches, as well as subjects like logic, grammar, medicine, Sankhya philosophy, and occult science, were studied.
• The university campus had numerous halls and multi-storied buildings where about 8500 students and 1500 teachers lived. Students were provided with free education, food, and lodging.
• The university operated for eight hours a day, delivering nearly one hundred lectures daily by various teachers, including Dharmapal (the Kulapati of Nalanda during Hiuen Tsang's time), Arya Deva, Chandrakirti, Chandragomin, Gunamati, Prabhamitra, Buddhakirti, Jinamitra, and Sumatisena.
• Admission to the university required passing a challenging entrance examination, with only about 20 percent of applicants succeeding.
• The university had a large library comprising three buildings known as 'Ratna-Sagar,' 'Ratnadadhi,' and 'Ratna Ranjaka.'
• Chinese traveler Yijing notes that revenues from 200 villages supported the university (as opposed to 100 in Xuanzang's time).
• Towards the end of the twelfth century, Muslim invaders set fire to the university buildings, burned the valuable library, and killed the monks, teachers, and students, marking the end of the glorious career of a university famous worldwide.
• Afghan military chief Bakhtiyar Khilji was responsible for destroying great universities like Nalanda, Vikramsila, and Odantapuri.

Harsha’s Personality: A Blend of Ashoka and Samudragupta

• Harsha, who came to power at a young age, was known for his multi-dimensional personality. He was not only a capable administrator but also politically astute. For example, he secured the loyalty of the ruler of Vallabhi by marrying his daughter to him. Despite personal losses, such as the death of his brother Rajyavardhana at the hands of Sasanka, Harsha chose not to confront Sasanka immediately, understanding the precariousness of his own position.
• Historians like Dr. R. K. Mookerjee have noted that Harsha combined the piety of Ashoka with the valor of Samudragupta. Both rulers expanded their control over northern India and established dominance over distant rulers, reducing them to vassals.

Harsha and the Piety of Ashoka:

• Similar to Ashoka, Harsha was known for his peaceful governance. Hiuen Tsang noted that Harsha conquered much of India within six years and then ruled peacefully for the next 30 years without further military campaigns. Like Ashoka, who engaged in military conquests only early in his reign and abandoned warfare after the Kalinga War, Harsha also patronized Buddhism and adopted its principles.
• Yuan Chiang recorded that Harsha banned animal slaughter for food, similar to Ashoka's prohibition in his Rock Edict I. Both rulers constructed stupas and hospices for travelers and the poor. Ashoka is said to have built 84,000 stupas and several viharas for traveling monks, while Harsha erected many stupas and hospices along highways.
• Both Harsha and Ashoka organized religious assemblies, with Harsha holding significant gatherings at Kannauj and Prayag, and Ashoka sponsoring the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra. Despite their conversion to Buddhism, both rulers were tolerant of other religions. They prioritized the welfare of their subjects, constantly traveling through their empires to ensure their well-being.
• Kautilya emphasized that a king's happiness lies in the happiness of his subjects, a principle both Harsha and Ashoka embodied. Harsha maintained friendly relations with neighbors like Bhaskarvarman of Kamrupa, while Ashoka fostered ties with southern kingdoms. Both rulers had diplomatic relations with foreign powers, with Ashoka sending envoys to Greek rulers and Ceylon, and Harsha to Chinese rulers.

Harsha and the Valor of Samudragupta:

• Harsha, like Samudragupta, was known for his military conquests and expansionist policies. Both rulers waged numerous wars, pursued aggressive policies, and established vast empires. Harsha sought to revive the imperial legacy of Samudragupta and aimed to unite Northern and Southern India, although he ultimately failed.
• The Allahabad pillar inscription details Samudragupta’s conquests, while Banabhat and Yuan Tsang provide information about Harsha's victories. However, some scholars question the direct comparison between Harsha and Samudragupta. Harsha's ascent to power in Thanesar and Kannauj gave him an advantage in empire-building, but he was not as successful a conqueror as Samudragupta. Harsha faced challenges against Sasanka and was possibly defeated by Pulakesin II, while Samudragupta achieved military success even in southern India.
• Harsha's successes were often short-lived and personal, lacking the enduring impact that characterized Samudragupta's empire, which lasted over 150 years. Scholars like Dr. R. C. Majumdar have debated the view of Harsha as a combination of Ashoka's piety and Samudragupta's valor. While Harsha was an enlightened monarch and a significant ruler of his time, he was not the last attempt at political unity in India. After his death, various empires rose and fell, but his contributions, particularly in elevating Thaneswar's status and his patronage of learning, were notable.

Harsha's Patronage of Learning and Literature:

• Under Harsha's rule, ancient Indian education and literature flourished. He was a great patron of learning, spending a significant portion of his revenue to support scholars. Harsha himself was an author, known for his three Sanskrit plays: "Nagananda," "Ratnavali," and "Priyadarshika," which showcased his literary talent.
• He also composed the story of Bodhisattva Jimuta-Vahana in verse, and the poet Jayadeva praised him for his poetry. Harsha's court included notable scholars such as Banabhatta, the author of "Kadambari" and "Harsha Charita," as well as other luminaries like Mayura, Divakara, Jaysena, and the Chinese scholar Hiuen-Tsang.

Religious Tolerance and Charitable Works:

• Harsha was known for his religious tolerance, benevolence, and charitable activities. He provided daily rations for 1,000 Buddhist monks and 500 Brahmanas at the royal lodge. Even if the accounts of Banabhatta and Hiuen-Tsang are taken with caution, Harsha's impact and contribution to early Indian history are undeniable.

Was Harsha the Last Hindu Emperor?

• Harsha is often regarded as the last Hindu emperor of Northern India, but he was neither a strict follower of Hinduism nor a true emperor, as he ruled only part of northern India and patronized various religions.

Aftermath of Harsha's Death:

• After Harsha's death in 647 CE, his empire quickly disintegrated into smaller states. In 648 CE, the Chinese Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty sent Wang Xuance to India in response to Harsha's ambassador to China. However, upon arrival in India, Wang Xuance discovered that Harsha had died, and the new king, Arunashwa (Harsha's minister who usurped the throne), attacked Wang and his 30 mounted subordinates.
• This led to Wang Xuance fleeing to Tibet and raising an army of Nepalese and Tibetan infantry to attack the Indian state. Wang's success in this campaign earned him the title of "Grand Master for the Closing Court" and secured a reported Buddhist relic for China. Chinese historical texts tend to exaggerate Wang's role in ending the Harsha Empire, and neither Bana's nor Xuanzang's accounts provide details about this period.