Regional States during Gupta Era: Polity and Administration | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Polity and Administration

During this period, the political landscape was primarily shaped by the reigns of:

• Guptas and Pushyabhutis in the north.
• Vakatakas,Kadambas, and Chalukyas of Badami in the Deccan.
• Pallavas in southern Andhra and Tamil Nadu.

There were also numerous small kingdoms and chieftaincies scattered throughout the country.
The major sources for studying the polity of this period include:

• Inscriptions
• Dharmashastra literature
• Harshacharita by Bana
• Accounts of Chinese travelers such as Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang

Broadly, the polity of this period was characterized by hereditary monarchies ruling over small territories, with a few occasionally assuming wider sovereign status. For instance, the Guptas (from 300 A.D. to 500 A.D.) and Harsha (in the first half of the 7th century A.D.) managed to control fairly large areas.

The King

Titles and Theories:

• Kings adopted grand titles like paramamahesvara,rajadhiraja, and paramabhattaraka, signifying their superiority over smaller rulers.
• The divine right theory gained prominence, with kings holding titles like prithvivallabha(“the beloved of the Earth goddess”).
• Kings were considered the fifth lokapala(guardian of a cardinal direction), alongside Kubera, Varuna, Indra, and Yama.
• This concept of divinity was intertwined with the notion of the king as a guardian and protector.

Succession and Governance:

• Kingship was hereditary, typically following the law of primogeniture(eldest son succeeding his father).
• However, there were instances where nobles and councillors elected kings, and succession was not always strictly followed.
• The king was the head of government, overseeing all administrative activities, acting as the supreme judge, and often leading the army in battle.
• While queens occasionally ruled, such as Prabhavati, the Vakataka queen, and Didda, the queen of Kashmir, they generally remained in the background.

Bureaucracy

Compared to the Mauryan period, there is no clear evidence of a central council of ministers, known as the mantriparishad, advising the King during the Gupta period. However, there were many high officials occasionally referred to as mantrin.
The other titles for senior officials included:

• Sandhivigrahika: Minister responsible for foreign affairs, war, and peace.
• Mahabaladhikrita and Mahadandanayaka: Denoting high-ranking positions in the army.

Sometimes, individuals held multiple positions. For instance, Harishena, who wrote the famous Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta, was both a sandhivigrahika and a mahadandanayaka.

• In the Gupta administration, there was a group of officials known as kumaramatyas. Most high officials were likely chosen from this class, and kumaramatyas are mentioned in various roles such as sandhivigrahika and mahabaladhikrita. Some officials reported directly to the King, while others served princes and provincial governors.
• The Uparika was responsible for a bhukti, an administrative division. The Ayuktaka, like the Vishayapati, operated above the village level and served as an important link between the bhukti and the village.
• Initially, officials were paid in cash, but later, they were assigned revenues from specific territories and became known as bhogika or bhogapati. This is evident from the Harshacharita, which mentions complaints by villagers against such officials. Over time, these posts became hereditary, weakening the King’s authority.

The Army

• A standing army became a regular feature for maintaining internal peace and defending against external threats. High military officials were in charge of this army, which included a significant cavalry component. Some maritime states, like the Pallavas in the south, also had a navy. However, chariots were not prominent during this period. The royal army was supplemented by the militia of feudatory chiefs, known as sarnanta.

Administrative Divisions

• The country was organized into various divisions for administrative purposes. The highest administrative unit was called bhukti, overseen by a high official known as uparika. Sometimes, princes were also in charge of certain bhukti. Below bhukti was the vishaya, and the lowest unit was the village. In some areas, the vishaya was also referred to as rashtra.
• In eastern India, the vishayas were further divided into vithis, in addition to the village. At the vishaya level, officials or locally powerful individuals called Vishayapatis played a crucial role in administration. Each village was managed by a headman and village elders, while urban settlements or towns had various craft and merchant guilds overseeing their administration.

The Samanta

• During this period, semi-independent local leaders known as samanta played a crucial role in the political landscape.
• Samudragupta expanded the Gupta Empire by conquering and subjugating various territories. Some rulers from these regions, located on the outskirts of the empire, were made subordinate allies of the Gupta King. 
• These rulers became feudatories, paying periodic tribute to the King. In some cases, they even solidified their allegiance by marrying their daughters into the royal family.
• These subordinate rulers were required to pay homage to the King by personally attending his court. In return, the King recognized their right to govern their own territories and granted them charters. While these feudatories or samantas were responsible for administering their lands, they were also obligated to send soldiers to the King’s army during wartime. 
• The central parts of the Gupta Empire were managed by the King’s officials, but the samantas had significant local authority.
• A significant aspect of the decentralized polity was the granting of land to priests and officials for their maintenance. In these cases, the King not only transferred land but also relinquished some administrative rights, such as taxation and punishment. 
• The granted territories were often exempt from the King’s army, making the grantees almost independent and turning them into samantas.
• By the 7th century A.D. and beyond, officials began adopting grand titles like mahasamanta and one who obtained the privilege of five great sounds (panchamahasabda). These titles signified their autonomy and the evolving political structure.
• Historians suggest that the Gupta period marked the development of a feudal-type political organization in India, characterized by these features.

Taxation

• The government primarily generated revenue through taxation, with land taxes such as bhaga and bhoga being the main sources of income. Over the centuries, land taxes increased significantly. In contrast, commercial taxes became less prominent due to a decline in trade and commerce during this period. Local people were also required to provide for the stay and food of visiting officials.
• The lands granted to officials and priests resulted in a substantial loss of revenue for the government. The taxation system was crucial for maintaining the financial stability of the state.

Judicial System

• During this time, the judicial system became more advanced compared to earlier periods. Numerous law codes and treatises were compiled, with the Dharmasastras providing detailed guidance on legal matters. Different courts, such as Karana,adhikarana, and dharmasana, were established to handle various cases.
• Civil and criminal cases were clearly distinguished, and laws regarding property and inheritance were elaborated. However, justice was influenced by the varna classification in society, with culprits from higher varnas receiving lighter punishments than those from lower varnas for the same crime. The Dharmasastras also emphasized the importance of local customs and practices of different guilds and castes in the administration of justice.