Late Seventeenth Century Crisis and the Revolts | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The economic and social structure during the Mughal rule

Mughal Society and Economy:

• Mughal society was organized in a pyramidal structure, with the emperor at the top, followed by the nobility, and then the middle class, which mainly consisted of traders and merchants.
• The Mughal Empire had a large and prosperous economy, with India producing about 25% of the world’s industrial output until the 18th century.
• The Mughals developed an extensive road system, introduced a uniform currency, and unified the country.
• The main source of the empire’s wealth was agricultural taxes, established by the third Mughal emperor Akbar.

Factors contributing to the late seventeenth-century crisis

Factors Contributing to the Decline of the Mughal Empire in the 18th Century:

• Challenges to Authority: Jat zamindars and peasants in the Mathura-Agra region repeatedly challenged Mughal authority. Sikh movements in Punjab and weakening support from Rajput chiefs further eroded imperial power.
• Administrative Breakdown: The mansabdari administrative system began to break down, and challenges from newly established regional rulers contributed to the decline.
• Taxation and Rebellions: The increasing burden of taxation led to zamindar-peasant rebellions throughout the empire, which were considered fundamental causes of decline.

Aurangzeb’s Reign and Policies

Aurangzeb’s controversial policies

• Aurangzeb was the sixth Mughal emperor, ruling from 1658 to 1707.
• He is often considered the last effective Mughal ruler.
• Aurangzeb's policies were controversial due to his religious orthodoxy and treatment of non-Muslim subjects.
• He reimposed the jizyah tax on non-Muslims and enforced religious, social, and legal disabilities on them.
• Aurangzeb forbade the construction of new Hindu temples and the repair of old ones, and ordered the demolition of Hindu schools and temples.

Impact on the Mughal Empire’s stability

Aurangzeb's Religious Policies and Their Impact on the Mughal Empire:

• Aurangzeb's religious policies harmed the stability of the Mughal Empire, which had thrived on respecting different religious beliefs and maintaining good relations between Hindus and Muslims.
• His actions caused widespread anger and rebellions against the Mughals, leading to the fragmentation of their kingdom and a significant weakening of their rule.
• During Aurangzeb's reign, the empire did grow, but it also showed clear signs of weakness.

Economic consequences of Aurangzeb’s rule

During Aurangzeb's rule, the Mughal Empire's economy started to decline.

• Aurangzeb imposed heavy taxes that made the farming population poorer.
• There was a gradual decline in the quality of Mughal governance, with later emperors showing little interest in governing or investing in important areas like agriculture, technology, or the military.
• Some emperors even discouraged economic growth because they feared that wealthy individuals might raise their own armies.

Peasant Rebellions and Uprisings

The Satnami Revolt (1672)

• The Satnami revolt was a significant peasant uprising that occurred in 1672 during the rule of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• The Satnamis, a sect within Hinduism, mainly comprised lower-caste artisans and agricultural laborers.
• The revolt originated in Narnaul, in present-day Haryana, India.
• Founded by the saint Birbhan, the Satnami sect preached monotheism and social equality.
• Under Aurangzeb, the Satnamis faced harsh taxes and discriminatory practices, leading to widespread discontent.
• The revolt was triggered by the mistreatment of a Satnami by a Mughal official, igniting anger among the community.
• Initially, the Satnami rebels recorded military successes against Mughal forces but were eventually overpowered by a larger Mughal army.
• The significance of the revolt lies in its reflection of the rising unrest among lower classes and the diminishing authority of the Mughal Empire.
• The Satnami revolt was one of many peasant uprisings during Aurangzeb's reign, contributing to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The Jat Rebellion (1669)

• The Jat rebellion was an important peasant uprising that took place in 1669 during the rule of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• The Jats were mainly farmers living in areas that are now Haryana,Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan in India.
• This rebellion was a reaction to Aurangzeb's harsh policies, which included heavy taxes and discrimination against non-Muslims.
• The revolt started in the Mathura-Agra region and was led by a Jat leader named Gokula.
• Gokula managed to unite different Jat clans and led them in a fight against the Mughal rulers, attacking officials and seizing their wealth.
• The Mughal army, commanded by the governor of Agra, eventually quashed the rebellion and captured Gokula, who was later executed.
• The Jat rebellion was important because it showed the increasing dissatisfaction among farmers and the declining power of the Mughal Empire.
• It was one of several peasant uprisings during Aurangzeb's reign that contributed to the fall of the Mughal Empire.

The Yusufzai Pashtun Revolt (1667)

• The Yusufzai Pashtun revolt was a notable uprising that occurred in 1667 during the rule of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• The Yusufzai Pashtuns were a tribal group living in the area that is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan and parts of eastern Afghanistan.
• The revolt was primarily a reaction to Aurangzeb's oppressive policies, which included heavy taxation,forced conversions to Islam, and the imposition of Mughal authority over the tribal regions.
• Known for their warrior culture and strong resistance to outside rule, the Yusufzai Pashtuns fiercely opposed the Mughal administration.
• The rebellion was led by a Yusufzai chieftain named Pir Sabir Shah, who united various Pashtun tribes against the Mughal forces.
• The Yusufzai Pashtun rebels employed guerrilla warfare against the Mughal army, targeting Mughal outposts and supply lines.
• Although the Mughal forces, led by the governor of Kabul, eventually suppressed the rebellion, the Yusufzai Pashtuns continued to resist Mughal rule in the subsequent years.
• The revolt was significant as it highlighted the increasing discontent among tribal groups and the weakening of Mughal authority in the frontier regions.
• It was one of several uprisings during Aurangzeb's reign, contributing to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The Afridi Pashtun Revolt

Afridi Pashtun Revolt Against Mughal Rule:

• The Afridi Pashtun revolt was a major uprising during the rule of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• The Afridi Pashtuns were a tribal group living in what is now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.
• This revolt was mainly a reaction to Aurangzeb's harsh policies, which included heavy taxes, forced conversions to Islam, and the imposition of Mughal control over tribal areas.
• Known for their warrior culture and resistance to outside rule, the Afridi Pashtuns strongly opposed Mughal authority.
• The rebellion was led by various Afridi chieftains who united the tribes against the Mughal forces.
• The Afridi rebels used guerrilla warfare tactics, attacking Mughal outposts and disrupting supply lines.
• Although the Mughal forces eventually quelled the rebellion, the Afridi Pashtuns continued to resist Mughal rule in the years that followed.
• This revolt was significant as it highlighted the growing discontent among tribal groups and the weakening grip of Mughal authority in the frontier regions.
• The Afridi Pashtun revolt was one of several uprisings during Aurangzeb's reign, contributing to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The Role of Climate Change and Famine

The ‘Little Ice Age’ and its effects on India

• The ‘Little Ice Age’ was a time of global cooling that happened between the 14th and 19th centuries.
• This cooling period had a big impact on India, especially during the time of the Mughal Empire (1526-1715).
• The ‘Little Ice Age’ is linked to bad monsoon rainfall, which probably led to droughts and famine in the Mughal Empire.
• These droughts and famines during the Little Ice Age significantly affected India’s social and economic development.

Famine and its impact on peasant rebellions

• These famines were often a result of the aftermath of wars and rebellions throughout the Mughal dynasty.
• The ‘Little Ice Age’ caused severe droughts and famines, contributing to peasant rebellions due to widespread crop failures and mass mortality.
• The Mughal administration's inability to effectively address these climate-induced crises worsened the situation and fueled peasant uprisings.

The Mughal administration’s response to climate change and famine

• The Mughal administration's efforts to tackle climate change and famine were often insufficient and ineffective.
• During severe famines, cultivators faced the risk of starvation despite the common practice of storing large amounts of grain.
• The Mughal state did not fully regulate the seasonal military labor market, which added to the population's vulnerability during famine periods.
• The history of famine relief in India under Mughal rule highlights the need for a more effective and proactive approach to address the challenges posed by climate change and famine.

The Decline of the Mansabdari System

The Jagirdari Crisis

• The Mansabdari system was a unique system introduced by Mughal Emperor Akbar in the 16th century.
• It involved assigning land
  (jagirs) to military officers (Mansabdars) in exchange for their service and loyalty.
• The jagirdari crisis emerged later in the Mughal Empire, especially during Aurangzeb's reign.
• This crisis was marked by a shortage of jagirs, making it difficult for the administration to provide enough land grants to the increasing number of Mansabdars.
• Factors contributing to the jagirdari crisis included the expansion of the Mughal Empire, the growing number of Mansabdars, and a decline in revenue.

Insecurity of Tenure and its Consequences

• Frequent Transfers: Mansabdars were often moved from one jagir to another, making it hard for them to form a bond with the land and its people.
• Lack of Investment: This insecurity made Mansabdars reluctant to invest in the development of their jagirs since they were unsure how long they would stay.
• Disruption of Administration: The constant transfers disrupted local administration and revenue collection, reducing the overall efficiency of the Mughal system.
• Weakened Loyalty: The insecurity of tenure weakened Mansabdars' loyalty to the Mughal Empire, as they became more focused on their personal interests and survival.

The Weakening of the Mughal Administration

• The decline of the Mansabdari system was a significant factor in weakening the Mughal administration.
• The jagirdari crisis and insecurity of tenure led to decreased efficiency and effectiveness within the administration, as Mansabdars became less committed to their duties.
• This weakening of administration contributed to the overall decline of the Mughal Empire by diminishing control over vast territories and allowing the rise of regional powers.
• Additionally, the decline of the Mansabdari system weakened Mughal military power, as Mansabdars were the main source of military manpower and resources for the empire.

The Rise of Regional Powers

The weakening of the central Mughal authority

• The decline of the Mughal Empire began with the weakening of central authority during Aurangzeb's reign.
• Factors like the decline of the Mansabdari system, the jagirdari crisis, and insecurity of tenure contributed to this weakening.
• The Mughal administration struggled to respond effectively to climate-induced crises such as droughts and famines, worsening the situation.
• Growing discontent among peasants and tribal groups led to numerous rebellions and uprisings, further undermining Mughal authority.

Emergence of regional powers and their impact on the Mughal Empire

• As the central authority of the Mughal Empire weakened, various regional powers began to assert their independence.
• Prominent regional powers that emerged during this period included the Marathas, the Sikhs, the Rajputs, and the Nawabs of Bengal,Awadh, and Hyderabad.
• The rise of these regional powers contributed to the fragmentation of the Mughal Empire, accelerating its decline.
• These regional powers often engaged in conflicts with the Mughal administration and with each other, further destabilizing the empire.

The role of the Rajput chiefs in the decline of the Mughal Empire

• The Rajputs, a warrior caste, were integrated into the Mughal administration as Mansabdars and military commanders.
• During Aurangzeb's reign, Rajput chiefs grew discontented due to the emperor's religious orthodoxy and discriminatory policies against non-Muslims.
• The Rajput chiefs gradually withdrew their support from the Mughal administration and began asserting their independence.
• The loss of support from the Rajput chiefs further weakened Mughal authority and contributed to the empire's decline.

The Economic Decline of the Mughal Empire

The impact of continuous wars on the Mughal treasury

• The Mughal Empire, especially under Aurangzeb, was engaged in many wars and military campaigns.
• These continuous wars drained the Mughal treasury because they required a lot of money for:
• Army maintenance
• Soldier payments
• Weapons and supplies procurement
• As the treasury depleted, the Mughal rulers increased taxes on the peasantry.
• This rise in taxes harmed the agricultural sector and contributed to the overall economic decline.

The decline of the agricultural sector

• The decline of the agricultural sector during the later years of the Mughal Empire was a result of several factors, including the impact of continuous wars, oppressive taxation, and climate-induced crises such as droughts and famines.
• The decline in agricultural productivity led to a decrease in the empire’s revenue, further weakening the Mughal administration and its ability to maintain control over its vast territories.

The weakening of the Mughal trade and industry

• During its peak, the Mughal Empire was renowned for its thriving trade and industry, which played a crucial role in its economic prosperity.
• However, as the empire began to decline, these sectors faced significant challenges. The downturn in trade and industry was influenced by several factors:
• Loss of Territory: The Mughals lost control over vital trade routes and ports, which severely impacted their trade relations with other countries.
• Decline of Agriculture: The weakening agricultural sector further contributed to the economic decline.
• Weakening Administration: The Mughal administration itself became weaker, struggling to maintain control and manage the economy effectively.
• The decline in trade and industry not only affected revenue but also exacerbated the overall economic decline of the empire, leading to a vicious cycle of weakening power and diminishing resources.

The Mughal Empire’s Response to the Crisis

Attempts at reform and centralization

• Challenges Faced by the Mughal Empire: The Mughal Empire was experiencing a decline due to economic troubles, a weakening Mansabdari system(the administrative and military framework), and the rise of regional powers that challenged central authority.
• Centralization Efforts: Emperors like Aurangzeb attempted to strengthen central control by imposing stricter regulations on provinces and increasing the central government's power.
• Counterproductive Outcomes: These efforts often backfired, alienating regional powers further and contributing to the empire's fragmentation instead of unification.
• Administrative Reforms: Reforms were also made to improve the tax collection system, promote trade and industry, and introduce new agricultural technologies. However, these measures were not enough to tackle the deep-rooted issues.
• Inability to Address Crises: Despite various reform attempts, the Mughal Empire could not effectively resolve the multiple crises it faced, leading to its eventual decline.

The role of the Mughal emperors in addressing the crisis

• Mughal emperors were pivotal in tackling the crises within the empire by implementing reforms and making crucial decisions.
• Aurangzeb and some other emperors were more proactive in addressing the crises, while others were less effective.
• The effectiveness of these emperors was often hampered by factors like the decline of the Mansabdari system, the rise of regional powers, and the weakening of central authority.
• The failure of the Mughal emperors to effectively manage the crises contributed to the empire's decline, leading to a loss of control over vast territories and the rise of regional powers.

The long-term consequences of the crisis on the Mughal Empire

• The crisis faced by the Mughal Empire had long-term consequences, ultimately leading to its decline and disintegration.
• The economic decline resulted in decreased revenue, weakening the Mughal administration and its ability to maintain control over vast territories.
• The decline of the Mansabdari system and the rise of regional powers contributed to the empire's fragmentation, as various regions asserted independence and challenged Mughal rule.
• The long-term consequences also included the erosion of Mughal military power, as the Mansabdars were the primary source of military manpower and resources.
• The decline of the Mughal Empire paved the way for the rise of new regional powers, such as the Marathas, the Sikhs, and the Nawabs of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad, shaping India's political landscape.

Conclusion

• The decline of the Mughal Empire resulted from various factors, including the weakening of central authority, the rise of regional powers, the decline of the Mansabdari system, and the impact of continuous wars on the Mughal treasury.
• The empire's inability to effectively address climate-induced crises, such as droughts and famines, exacerbated the situation.
• Despite attempts at reform and centralization, the Mughal Empire could not recover from these challenges, leading to its eventual decline.