Arab Conquest of Sind | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Overview

• The Arabs had long been involved in carrying Indian trade to Europe, but after their conversion to Islam, they became more interested in India's immense wealth and in spreading their new religion there. The opportunity to invade Sind came for the Arabs in the early eighth century due to the widespread political instability in India following the death of Harshavardhan. This instability encouraged foreign powers to attack and enter India. After the rise of Islam, the Arabs had successfully spread their religion in regions like Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Persia, and now they set their sights on Sind.
• The Arab invasion of India began with the conquest of Sindh between 712 and 714 AD, led by Muhammad bin Qasim. He landed at Debal, near the mouth of the Indus River, and advanced as far as Multan. After defeating the local ruler Dahir, Arab rule was established in the region.

Main Historical Source

Chachnama:

• The Chachnama, an Arabic text of unknown authorship, stands as the most reliable primary source concerning the history of Sind's indigenous ruling dynasty just before the Arab invasion in 711-12 AD.
• This work outlines the Sudra dynasty of Sind, detailing how Chach, a Brahmin minister, seized the throne after the death of the last ruler,Rai Sahasi II, in the seventh century.
• Dahir, Chach's son and successor, ascended the throne around 708 AD and was the ruler who confronted the Arab forces in Sind, ultimately losing his life along with his entire family in the conflict.

Factors Leading to the Arab Conquest of Sindh

Propagation of Islam:

• The spread of Islam was a significant factor motivating the Arab invasion of Sind.
• After Islam gained a foothold in Egypt and Syria, Caliph Walid I of Damascus encouraged the Arabs to pursue their mission in India.
• Additionally, the followers of Islam were strongly opposed to the Hindu practice of idolatry and believed that plundering the idolaters would be a means of earning merit.

Wealth of India:

• India was renowned for its immense wealth and splendor.
• Much like previous invaders, the Arabs were lured by the prospect of acquiring India's riches.

Political Condition of India:

• The political landscape of India at the time also played a crucial role in the Arab invasion of Sindh.
• There was widespread rivalry and conflict among the kings of various petty provinces in India.
• The ruler of Sindh, Dahir, was unpopular and lacked support, which the Arabs exploited to their advantage.

Immediate Cause:

• The immediate trigger for the Arab invasion of Sind was the looting of eight Arab ships near Debal, which were carrying gifts and treasures from the King of Ceylon to the Caliph.
• Some historians suggest that the ships also contained beautiful women and valuable items for the Caliph.
• This act of piracy was strongly condemned by Hajaj, the governor of Iraq, who demanded compensation from Dahir, the king of Sind.
• When Dahir refused, claiming he had no control over the pirates, Hajaj was infuriated and decided to send military expeditions against Sind, with the Caliph's permission.
• The first two expeditions were repelled by Dahir, leading Hajaj to send his nephew,Imaduddin Muhammad-bin-Qasim, an able and young commander, to lead a large army into Sind.

Conquest

Fall of Debal:

• Imaduddin Muhammad-bin-Qasim led his army towards Debal, a prominent seaport where Arab ships had been plundered.
• The governor of Debal was a nephew of Dahir. A treacherous Brahmin supposedly deserted the fortress, providing Qasim with crucial information about its defenses.
• Debal was captured, and a vast booty, including numerous women, fell into the hands of the Arabs, followed by massacre and forced conversions.
• Dahir, aware of the impending Arabian attack, underestimated the threat.

Fall of Nirun:

• Buoyed by his success, Muhammad-bin-Qasim advanced towards Nirun, which was under the control of Dahir’s son,Jai Sindh.
• As the Arabs approached, Jai Sindh fled, leaving the fort to a priest, and Qasim captured it without resistance.
• Nirun's fall is attributed to the treachery of some Buddhist citizens, and Dahir's lack of urgency in responding to the Arabian advances.

Fall of Sehwan:

• After seizing Debal and Nirun, Muhammad-bin-Qasim directed his efforts towards Sehwan, a town governed by Dahir's cousin Bajhra.
• The town, primarily inhabited by merchants and priests, fell to the Arab assault as Bajhra was unable to mount a defense.

Fall of Sisam and Victory over the Jats:

• Sisam, the capital of the Jats of Budhiya and ruled by king Kaka, faced the same fate as Sehwan.
• Kaka had provided refuge to Bajhra after his escape from Sehwan.
• Qasim defeated the Jats, and Bajhra and his followers were killed.
• During this period, Muhammad-bin-Qasim reached the river Mihran, where he was delayed for months due to the death of many horses from scurvy and awaited reinforcements.
• Dahir had the opportunity to attack but remained inactive, allowing the Arabs to cross the river.
• Dahir, possibly confident in defeating the enemy in a single battle, awaited them at Rawar, along the Indus River.

The Battle of Rawar:

Dahir, the powerful king of Sind, awaited the Arab invaders with a large army of 50,000 troops at Rawar.The battle commenced on June 20, 712 A.D., and was intense and fierce.Dahir, a valiant warrior, led his troops from the front, fighting with great courage, even riding an elephant into battle.Despite his heroic efforts, Dahir was killed after two days of fierce fighting.Queen Ranibai, his widow, refused to surrender the fort of Rawar and fought valiantly against the invaders, ultimately performing Jouhar along with other ladies of the fort.Though Muhammad-bin-Qasim emerged victorious, it took him about eight months to gain control over Sind due to strong resistance from the local populace in various towns, including Alor and Brahmanabad.

Occupation of Multan:

• After conquering Sind, Muhammad-bin-Qasim advanced towards Multan, a significant city in the upper Indus basin.
• Despite facing strong resistance from local inhabitants along the way, he managed to overpower them.
• Upon reaching Multan, he found the city heavily fortified with the populace in full revolt.
• However, Qasim was fortunate to receive assistance from a traitor who revealed the source of the city's water supply.
• By cutting off the water supply, Qasim forced the surrender of Multan after a fierce battle.
• The city fell into the hands of the invaders in 713 A.D., with widespread massacre and plunder.
• Women and children were taken captive, and a vast amount of gold was seized, leading to the city being dubbed the 'city of gold.'
• Having completed his mission in Sind and Multan, Muhammad-bin-Qasim planned to venture further into the interior of India. However, his life came to a tragic end when he was ordered to be killed by the Caliph, the religious leader of the Islamic world.

Causes of Arab Success in Sind

The Arab conquest of Sind was facilitated by various interrelated factors that undermined the local resistance and bolstered the invaders' efforts. Below are the key causes of Arab success in Sind:

Fragmented Society:

• Sind had a diverse population comprising Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Jats, and Meds, among others. However, these groups lacked unity and mutual cooperation.
• The subjects of Dahir were socially fragmented, which made it difficult for them to unite against the common threat posed by the Arab invaders.

Unpopularity of Dahir:

• Dahir was disliked by various sections of his subjects due to his arrogant demeanor and the fact that he was the son of an usurper.
• Dahir's father had usurped the throne by murdering the king and marrying the widow queen. This tainted Dahir's legitimacy in the eyes of the people.
• Dahir also had conflicts with his cousin brothers over the throne, which led to internal strife and weakened his position.
• His governors acted almost as semi-independent princes and did not offer the necessary support during crises.
• Due to his unpopularity, Dahir lacked the crucial support of his subjects during the foreign invasion.

Betrayal and Treachery:

• Treachery played a significant role in the Arab success. Betrayals from within contributed to the fall of key cities.
• In Debal, a Brahmin traitor disclosed crucial secrets to the invaders. At Nirun, Buddhists betrayed their own by collaborating with the Arab forces.
• In Multan, a traitor revealed the city's water supply source to the invaders, further aiding their conquest.

Poverty and Backwardness:

• Sind was characterized by poverty, backwardness, a sparse population, and limited resources. This made it challenging for Dahir to finance a large army or sustain a prolonged war effort.
• The economic conditions of Sind made it an attractive target for the Arabs, who were encouraged by the prospect of an easy conquest.

Isolation of Sind:

• Sind's geographical isolation from the rest of India contributed to the Arab success. Despite the presence of powerful dynasties like the Pratiharas of Malwa and Kanauj, they did not come to Sind's aid.
• The lack of support from these dynasties marked the beginning of Muslim rule in India, as they ignored the plight of Sind during the invasion.

Religious Enthusiasm of Arabs:

• The Arab invaders were driven by religious zeal and a sense of mission, believing they were forces of God tasked with spreading Islam.
• The Arabs were fueled by a strong sense of patriotism and religious fervor, which contrasted sharply with the Indians' more tolerant and indifferent attitude toward different faiths and peoples.

Strong Army:

• The Arab army, led by Muhammad-bin-Qasim, was superior to Dahir's forces in terms of strength, technique, and equipment.
• While Dahir's army was nearly equal in number at Rawar, it was poorly equipped and comprised hastily recruited soldiers who lacked adequate military training.
• The lack of preparation and training among Dahir's troops contributed significantly to their defeat.

Responsibility of Dahir:

• Dahir's initial inaction and poor decision-making played a crucial role in the success of the Arabs. He failed to respond effectively while Muhammad-bin-Qasim was capturing key locations like Debal, Nirun, and Sehwan.
• Dahir remained inactive even when Muhammad crossed the Mihran River to enter Rawar, mistakenly believing he could defeat the enemy in a single decisive battle.
• At Rawar, Dahir made a critical error by not commanding the army as its leader. Instead of leading his troops, he fought like a common soldier and ultimately lost his life, further contributing to the failure of his forces.

Impact of Arab Advent in India

Political Impact:

• The Arab advent in India had a limited political impact as their rule was confined to a small area and lasted for a short period. It did not significantly alter the political landscape of northern India.
• Historians like Stanley Lane-Poole and Wolsely Haig viewed the Arab conquest of Sind as a minor episode in Indian history, with Lane-Poole describing it as a "triumph without results."
• After the death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim, the Arabs faced challenges in expanding further into India. Their rule, lasting about one and a half centuries, was limited to Sind.
• Some administrative practices of the Arab rulers, such as the imposition of Jizya on non-Muslims, influenced later medieval Indian rulers.
• Historians suggest that the lack of resistance from many Indian rulers against the Arabs facilitated later invasions by Mahmud of Ghazni and Mohammad Ghori.
• The foundation of Muslim rule in India was eventually established by the Turk Muslims much later. Professor Habibullah noted that the Arab presence in Sind did not establish Islam as a significant political force in India.

Economic Impact:

• The Arabs significantly enriched the region economically by promoting various practices such as desert cultivation, camel breeding, leather tanning, and manufacturing.
• They played a crucial role in developing international trade, introducing new currency, and fostering urban life and related institutions.
• The Arabs established communication links with other Islamic regions, facilitating direct trade and business with Islamic countries.
• Their town planning and economic practices based on local crops improved the economic conditions of the Sindh region. They also introduced methods of transporting goods, such as using horses and camels for trade.

Social Impact:

• The Arab rule in Sindh contributed to the spread of Islam, leading to significant demographic changes in the region.
• The conquest of Sindh established a strong Muslim presence in the Indian subcontinent and demonstrated a degree of religious tolerance between different faiths.

Cultural Impact:

• The Arab rule in Sindh facilitated the mingling of different cultures, with Arab culture being enriched by Hindu culture and civilization.
• Arabs enhanced the Sindhi language and developed its script, while also absorbing Indian influences in various fields such as astronomy, mathematics, philosophy, medicine, and literature.
• Many Indian texts, including the Surya Siddhanta, Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, and Panchatantra, were translated from Sanskrit into Arabic.
• Indian scholars were invited to Baghdad, and Indian architects were called to construct mosques and buildings there. Notable figures like Dhana, an Indian physician, served in Baghdad, and Arab astronomers like Abu Mashar studied in India.
• Sufism also spread through Sindh, and cultural contacts continued even after the Arab loss of Sindh, maintained by the Abbasid Caliphs and later Indian rulers.
• The enduring cultural links laid the groundwork for Indo-Islamic culture, with significant figures like Alberuni emerging from this rich cultural interaction.