Agriculture Production in Mughal India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

India produces a wide variety of food crops, fruits, vegetables, and other crops due to its diverse climatic conditions and fertile soil.

Extent of cultivation

Availability of data on area under plough during the Mughal period:

• The data available helps us to have an idea about the cultivable land during Mughal period.

Ain-i Akbari:

• Abul Fazl in his Ain-i Akbari provides area figures for all the Mughal provinces in North India except Bengal, Thatta and Kashmir.
• Figures belong to the year c. 1595.

Accountancy Manual of 1686:

• Figures for the 17th century are available in an accountancy manual of A.D. 1686.
• Provides measured area figures for each province, total number of villages, and a break-up of measured and unmeasured villages.

Debate among historians regarding measurement figures:

• W.H. Moreland: Figures represent the total cropped area.
• Irfan Habib: Figures include cultivable area not sown, and areas under habitation, lakes, tanks, parts of forests, etc.
• Shireen Moosvi: Cultivable waste calculated as ten percent of the measured area; remaining area not net cropped area.

Estimates on cultivated area:

• Cultivated area between the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 20th century doubled.
• Increase in Bihar, Awadh, and parts of Bengal due to clearance of forest.
• In Punjab and Sind, spread of canal network contributed to extension in cultivation.

Means of cultivation and irrigation

Means and Methods of Cultivation:

• Tillage: Done using a wooden plough with an iron ploughshare, pulled by oxen. There were regional variations in the size and weight of ploughs.

• Deep digging was avoided to prevent moisture loss, and only the upper layer of soil was worked on, as it was the most fertile.

• The sowing of seeds was generally done through scattering by hand. In the 16th century, Barbosa also refers to the use of a sort of seed drill in the coastal region for sowing rice.

Use of Flocks of Goats and Sheep:

• In South India, flocks of goats and sheep were used to fertilize fields with their droppings. A flock of 1000 was believed to keep land fertile for 6 to 7 years by spending a few nights on it.
• This practice was also common in Northern India, and fish manure was used in coastal areas.

Rotation of Crops:

• Crops were rotated to maximize land use throughout the year and maintain soil productivity.
• Peasants used their experience to decide which crops to plant in place of others for better yields.
• Harvesting: Crops were cut using a semi-circular sickle.
• Threshing: Done by beating the crop with sticks or by having animals walk on the spread-out crop.
• Winnowing: The threshed material was put in baskets and thrown outside at a controlled speed to separate chaff from grain using the wind.

Means of Irrigation:

• Indian agriculture relied heavily on rainwater for irrigation. Crops were chosen based on the availability of rainwater in a region.
• Well-irrigation was common across the country, with different methods used to lift water depending on the water table and available technology.

Types of Wells:

• Non-Masonry Wells: These were less durable and required annual digging.
• Masonry Wells: These were more durable, with raised walls and platforms, suitable for better water lifting devices.

Devices for Lifting Water from Wells:

• Hand Method: Water drawn by hand using rope and bucket.
• Pulley Method: Using a pulley to lift water with less effort.
• Ox-Powered Method: Using oxen to lift water with rope and pulley.
• Lever Method: A system using a lever to lift water.
• Wheel Method: Using wheels to lift water from wells or shallow surfaces.
• Large-scale irrigation also involved lakes, tanks, and reservoirs, especially in South India.
• Canals were significant in the Northern plains, with historical examples from the Mughal period, such as the Nahr Faiz canal.

Agriculture Produce

India's Diverse Agricultural Products:

• India's vast land area, with various types of soil and different climatic conditions, allows for a wide range of agricultural products. These products can be categorized into three main groups: food crops, cash crops, and fruits, vegetables, and spices.

Food Crops:
In North India, seasonal crops are primarily grown during two main seasons:kharif(autumn) and rabi(spring). In some areas, farmers manage to grow three crops by incorporating short-term crops in between. The main kharif crop is rice, while wheat is the primary rabi crop.

In South India, the distinct crop seasons and varieties found in the North are less pronounced. Here, on wet lands, one paddy (rice) crop is grown from June/July to December/January, followed by another from January/February to April/May. Rice and wheat are the two major food crops cultivated throughout the country.

• Rice: Rice is primarily produced in regions with high rainfall (40" to 50"), such as the Northeast, Eastern India (including Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, and parts of Eastern Uttar Pradesh), the southern coast of Gujarat, and South India. In South India, there are two main seasons for rice cultivation:kuddapah-kar and samba-peshanam, named after the rice varieties grown during these periods. Rice is also cultivated in irrigated areas of Punjab and the Deccan region. Different regions produce various qualities of rice, with Bengal and Bihar known for their fine-quality rice.
• Wheat: Wheat is primarily grown in regions with lower rainfall, such as Punjab, Sind, Western Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Bihar, Gujarat, the Deccan, and even some areas of Bengal.
• Barley: Barley is extensively grown in the Central plains, with historical references to its production in regions like Allahabad, Awadh, Agra, Ajmer, Delhi, Lahore, and Multan.
• Millet: Millet, including jowar and bajra, is primarily reported from wheat-producing zones.
• Pulses: Pulses such as gram, arhar, moong, moth, urd, and khisari are grown in various regions. Khisari, extensively grown in Bihar and parts of present-day Madhya Pradesh, was noted by Abul Fazl to be injurious to health, a claim supported by modern research.
• Maize: Contrary to earlier beliefs, recent research indicates that maize (makai or makka) was grown in India during the 17th century, particularly in Rajasthan and Maharashtra.

Cash Crops:

• Crops grown primarily for the market are known as cash crops. These crops occupied the fields for almost the whole year, unlike seasonal food crops. The major cash crops during the 16th and 17th centuries included sugarcane, cotton, indigo, and opium. These crops were known in India from historical times, but their demand increased significantly in the 17th century due to enhanced manufacturing and commercial activities. During this period, a large foreign market also opened up for these commodities, prompting Indian peasants to increase their cultivation in response to market demand.
• Sugarcane: Sugarcane was the most widely grown cash crop of the period. The Ain-i Akbari records its cultivation in most of the dastur circles, including Agra, Awadh, Lahore, Multan, and Allahabad. Bengal was known for producing the best quality sugar, while sugarcane was also prevalent in regions like Multan, Malwa, Sind, Khandesh, Berar, and South India.
• Cotton: Cotton was another widely grown cash crop, with large-scale cultivation in regions such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Bengal. Contemporary sources mention its cultivation in Ajmer, Allahabad, Awadh, Bihar, Multan, Thatta (Sind), Lahore, and Delhi.
• Indigo: Indigo was a popular cash crop during the Mughal period, as it produced a blue dye (neel) that was in high demand in India and European markets. Its presence is recorded in dastur circles such as Awadh, Allahabad, Ajmer, Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Multan, and Sind. Its cultivation was noted in regions like Gujarat, Bihar, Bengal, Malwa, Coromandel, and South India. The most sought-after varieties were from Bayana and Sarkhej. Bayana, near Agra, produced the best quality indigo, while Sarkhej, near Ahmedabad, was second in quality.
• Opium: Opium cultivation was reported in various regions, with Bihar and Malwa noted for producing good quality opium. Other regions include Awadh, Delhi, Agra, Multan, Lahore, Bengal, Gujarat, Marwar, and Mewar.
• Tobacco: Tobacco cultivation spread rapidly in India, having been introduced by the Portuguese in the 16th century. It was noticed in almost all parts of the country, particularly in Surat and Bihar.
• Coffee: Coffee cultivation appears to have started in the latter half of the 17th century, while tea was not a common beverage during this period.
• San or sunn-hemp, a fiber-yielding plant, was cultivated in all core provinces of the Mughal Empire, including Awadh, Allahabad, Agra, Lahore, and Ajmer.
• Sericulture, or the rearing of silkworms on mulberry plants, was practiced in Bengal, Assam, Kashmir, and the western coast, with Bengal being the main region of production.
• Oilseed crops, including rapeseed, castor, and linseed, were cultivated for both food and cash purposes. Rapeseed was reported in all provinces from Allahabad to Multan and in Bengal, though the cultivation of oilseed plants was relatively less widespread.

Fruits, Vegetables, and Spices:

• During the Mughal period, horticulture reached new heights, with emperors and nobles planting lavish orchards. Almost every noble had gardens on the outskirts of towns where they resided, with orchards and groves laid out with careful planning. Many fruits available today were introduced in India during the 16th and 17th centuries.
• Pineapple(anannas) was brought from Latin America by the Portuguese and became popular throughout the country. Other fruits introduced included papaya and cashew nuts, though their spread was slower. Leechi and guava were introduced later, while cherries were brought from Kabul and grown in Kashmir through grafting. Grafting was also used to improve the quality of various fruits, including oranges, apricots, and mangoes. Coconut was grown not only along the coast but also inland.
• A variety of vegetables were grown across the country, with the Ain-i Akbari providing a list of vegetables in use at the time. Potato and tomato seem to have been introduced in the 17th century or later.
• Spices were a significant part of India's export, with large-scale exports of pepper, clove, and cardamom from the southern coast. Ginger and turmeric were also grown extensively, with large quantities purchased for export by the Dutch and English. Saffron grown in Kashmir was celebrated for its color and flavor. Pan (betel leaf) was produced in many areas, with varieties from Bihar and Bengal being particularly famous. Betel nut was produced in coastal regions.
• Large forest tracts supplied commercially important products, with lignum used for medicinal purposes and lakh being exported in large quantities.

Productivity and Yields:

• Shireen Moosvi has calculated crop productivity and per bigha yields for Mughal India. The Ain-i Akbari provides schedules of crop yield and revenue rates for zabti provinces such as Lahore, Multan, Agra, Allahabad, Awadh, and Delhi. Yields are categorized into high, middling, and low for each crop. The average yield can be determined based on these categories, although Abul Fazl does not explain the basis for these classifications. It appears that low yields correspond to non-irrigated land, while high and middling yields apply to irrigated fields.
• Moosvi's estimates of agricultural productivity in the 16th century indicate the following average yields for major crops:

Average Cop Yields (1595-96)-(man-i Akbari per bigha-i Ilahi)

Wheat 13.49

• Bajra 5.02
• Sugarcane 11.75
• Barley 12.93
• Jowar 7.57
• Mustard 5.13
• Gram 9.71
• Cotton 5.75
• Sesame 4.00

Shireen Moosvi has compared yields from the Ain-i Akbari with those from the late 19th century.

• For food crops, there was no significant change in productivity between the two periods.
• However, for cash crops, there was a noticeable increase in productivity during the 19th century.

Cattle and livestock

The Role of Cattle in Agricultural Production:

• Cattle were crucial for agricultural production, used for ploughing, irrigation, and their dung for manuring.
• Dairy products significantly contributed to agriculture-related production, with peasants and specialized castes involved in cattle rearing.
• The large-scale use of cattle in agriculture indicates a high cattle population.
• The high land-to-man ratio implies ample grazing fields.
• Contemporary European travelers noted the large numbers of cattle in Indian fields.
• Irfan Habib noted that the per capita cattle population in Mughal India is comparable to modern statistics.
• The abundance of butter and ghee in the diet of common people suggests a large cattle population.
• Oxen were also used for transporting goods as pack animals or in bullock carts.
• The Banjaras, a migrant trading community, maintained flocks of hundreds to thousands of animals.
• Flocks of thousands of sheep and goats were also reared.