Rise of Gandhi and Early Activism | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Gandhi in South Africa

Young Barrister in South Africa:

• The young barrister who arrived in Durban in 1893 on a one-year contract to assist Dada Abdullah, a Gujarati merchant, appeared to be an ordinary individual trying to make a living. However, he was the first Indian barrister and the first highly educated Indian to come to South Africa.

Indian Immigration to South Africa:

• Indian immigration to South Africa began with white settlers.
• Indentured Indian labor was recruited, primarily from South India.
• Laborers were brought to work on sugar plantations.
• Following this, Indian merchants, mostly Meman Muslims, arrived.
• The third group consisted of ex-indentured laborers who settled in South Africa.
• Many of the ex-indentured laborers were joined by their children.
• Many children were born in South Africa.

Lack of Education and Acceptance of Discrimination:

• None of these Indian groups had significant access to education. They had come to accept the racial discrimination they faced as part of their daily lives. Even if they resented it, they had little idea how to challenge it.

Gandhi’s Response to Racial Insults:

• Young Mohandas Gandhi was not accustomed to enduring racial insults.
• He had spent three years in London studying for the Bar.
• Gandhi had not encountered the overt racism that he faced in South Africa.
• His experiences in India and England were different.

Influence of Books on Gandhi in South Africa:

• During his time in South Africa, Gandhi’s ethical thinking was significantly influenced by several books.
• These books included Plato’s Apology and John Ruskin’s Unto this Last (1862), both of which he translated into Gujarati.
• William Salter’s Ethical Religion (1889) also played a role in shaping his thoughts.
• Henry David Thoreau’s On the Duty of Civil Disobedience (1849) influenced his views on civil disobedience.
• Leo Tolstoy’s The Kingdom of God Is Within You (1894) further impacted his ethical framework.
• Ruskin’s work inspired Gandhi to live a simple life in a commune.
• Initially, this commune was on the Phoenix Farm in Natal.
• Later, he established the Tolstoy Farm near Johannesburg, South Africa.

Racial Discrimination Faced by Gandhi

• During Gandhi's journey from Durban to Pretoria, he encountered significant racial humiliations shortly after his arrival in South Africa. Notable incidents included:
• First-Class Compartment Incident: Gandhi was forcibly removed from a first-class compartment by a White man and left to spend the night in the waiting room.
• Driver's Box Experience: Despite purchasing a first-class ticket, Gandhi was made to travel in the driver's box of a coach. When he refused to vacate his seat and sit on the foot-board, he was physically assaulted.
• Hotels in Johannesburg: Upon reaching Johannesburg, Gandhi found that all hotels were fully booked the moment he inquired about a room for the night.
• Train Ticket Struggles: After obtaining a first-class train ticket from Johannesburg to Pretoria by citing railway regulations, Gandhi faced the threat of being ejected from his compartment. He was only saved from this humiliation by the intervention of a European passenger.

Gandhi's Activism in South Africa:

• Upon his arrival in Pretoria, where he was to work on a civil suit, Gandhi quickly called a meeting of the local Indian community. He offered to teach English to anyone interested and encouraged them to organize and protest against oppression.
• Gandhi also expressed his protest through the press, writing an indignant letter to the Natal Advertiser. Despite not planning to stay in South Africa at that time, he aimed to awaken the Indians in Pretoria to their dignity and urge them to resist racial discrimination.
• As a British-educated barrister, Gandhi demanded rights such as first-class train tickets and hotel rooms, which previous Indians may not have had the courage to request.
• After settling the legal case that brought him to South Africa, Gandhi prepared to return to India. However, on the eve of his departure from Durban, he raised concerns about a bill aimed at disenfranchising Indians being passed by the Natal legislature.
• The Indian community in South Africa pleaded with Gandhi to stay for a month to organize their protest, as they lacked the English skills to draft petitions. Gandhi agreed to stay for a month but ended up staying for twenty years, starting this journey at the age of twenty-five.

Moderate Phase of Gandhi’s Activism (1894-1906):

• Gandhiji's political activities from 1894 to 1906 are considered the 'Moderate' phase of the struggle for South African Indians.
• During this time, he focused on petitioning and sending memorials to South African legislatures, the Colonial Secretary in London, the British Parliament. He believed that presenting all the facts to the Imperial Government would appeal to their sense of justice and prompt intervention on behalf of Indians, who were British subjects.
• Gandhiji aimed to unite different sections of Indians and give their demands widespread publicity.
• He achieved this by establishing the Natal Indian Congress in 1894 and starting a newspaper called Indian Opinion in 1903, published in Gujarati, Hindi, Tamil, English.
• The Phoenix settlement in Natal was inspired by John Ruskin's Unto This Last in 1904.
• During this period, Gandhiji's skills as an organizer, fund-raiser, journalist, propagandist were evident.
• In 1900, during the Boer War, Gandhi volunteered to form a group of ambulance drivers to challenge the British notion that Hindus were unfit for manly activities. He raised eleven hundred Indian volunteers for frontline service.
• In 1906, when the British declared war against the Zulu Kingdom in Natal, Gandhi encouraged the British to recruit Indians, asserting that their participation would legitimize their claims to full citizenship. The British accepted his offer for a detachment of 20 Indians to serve as a stretcher-bearer corps to care for wounded British soldiers.
• However, by 1906, Gandhiji, after exhausting the 'Moderate' methods, was convinced that these approaches would not be effective.

Green Pamphlet

• In 1896, Gandhi emerged as a prominent leader for Indians in South Africa. He planned a trip back to India to visit his family, arriving in Calcutta.
• During his stop in Rajkot, Gandhi authored the "Green Pamphlet." In this pamphlet, he highlighted the harsh conditions faced by Indian indentured laborers and coolies in South Africa. He also delivered speeches in India about human rights and the plight of these workers.
• The British authorities viewed the Green Pamphlet as an anti-government publication. Upon Gandhi's return to Durban, his ship was denied docking for three days. When he finally disembarked, he faced violence from white individuals. Despite this mistreatment, Gandhi remained committed to his work with the Indian Natal Congress.

Passive Resistance or Civil Disobedience Phase of Gandhi’s Activism (1906-1915):

• The second phase of the struggle in South Africa, which began in 1906, was characterized by the use of passive resistance or civil disobedience.
• This method was named Satyagraha by Gandhiji.
• It was first used when the Government enacted legislation making it compulsory for Indians to take out certificates of registration holding their fingerprints in 1906.
• These certificates were essential to carry on person at all times.
• At a huge public meeting on 11 September 1906, in the Empire Theatre in Johannesburg, Indians resolved to refuse to submit to this law.
• Gandhiji formed the Passive Resistance Association to conduct the campaign.
• After the last date for registration, the Government started proceedings against Gandhiji.
• The passive resisters pleaded guilty, were ordered to leave the country, were sent to jail for refusing to comply.
• The fear of jail disappeared, it was popularly called King Edward’s Hotel.
• General Smuts called Gandhiji for talks and promised to withdraw the legislation.
• Gandhiji accepted and was the first to register, but Smuts tricked him by ratifying voluntary registrations under the law.
• In retaliation, Indians under Gandhiji's leadership publicly burned their registration certificates.
• The Government then introduced new legislation to restrict Indian immigration in Transvaal.
• In August 1908, prominent Indians from Natal crossed the frontier into Transvaal to defy the new immigration laws and were arrested.
• Gandhiji landed in jail in October 1908, sentenced to hard physical labour.
• The Government resorted to deportation to India, especially of poorer Indians.
• The Government was unyielding; Gandhiji’s visit to London in 1909 yielded little result.
• Funds for supporting the families of the Satyagrahis were running out.
• At this point, Gandhiji set up Tolstoy Farm (1910-1913) near Johannesburg to house the families of the Satyagrahis.
• Tolstoy Farm was the precursor of later Gandhian ashrams that played an important role in the Indian national movement.
• Funds also came from India including contributions from Sir Ratan Tata, Congress, the Muslim League.
• Gokhale visited South Africa, was treated as a guest of the Government, promised that all discriminatory laws against Indians would be removed.
• This promise was never kept, leading to the resumption of Satyagraha in 1913.
• The movement expanded to include resistance to the poll tax of three pounds imposed on ex-indentured Indians.
• The demand for the abolition of this tax drew indentured and ex-indentured labourers into the struggle.
• A Supreme Court judgment invalidated all marriages not conducted according to Christian rites, which insulted the honor of Indian women.
• Many women were drawn into the movement due to this indignity.
• Gandhiji decided it was time for the final struggle, launching a campaign by illegally crossing the border.
• A group of sixteen Satyagrahis, including Kasturba, Gandhiji’s wife, were immediately arrested.
• A group of eleven women marched from Tolstoy Farm into Natal without a permit, reaching New Castle.
• They spoke to Indian mine workers, mostly Tamils, persuading them to go on strike before being arrested.
• Gandhiji took charge of the agitation in New Castle and decided to march over two thousand people into Transvaal.
• During this march, Gandhiji was arrested and sent to jail.
• Despite this, the morale of the workers remained high as they continued their march.
• The Government’s actions inflamed the entire Indian community, leading to a lightning strike among plantation and mine workers.
• Gokhale toured India to arouse public opinion, while even the Viceroy, Lord Hardinge, condemned the repression.
• Lord Hardinge called for an impartial inquiry into the charges of atrocities against the Indians.

Final Settlement:

• After extensive negotiations involving Gandhiji, the Viceroy Lord Hardinge, C.F. Andrews, General Smuts, an agreement was finally reached.
• The Government of South Africa conceded to major Indian demands concerning the poll tax, registration certificates, marriages solemnized according to Indian rites.
• The government also promised to address the issue of Indian immigration with sympathy.

Significance of South African Activism of Gandhi

• Non-violent Civil Disobedience: In South Africa, Gandhi successfully used non-violent civil disobedience to bring opponents to the negotiating table, setting the groundwork for his method of struggle.
• Preparation for Indian Leadership: The South African experience prepared Gandhi for leading the Indian national struggle, as he witnessed the capacity of Indian laborers for sacrifice and hardship.
• Leadership Across Communities: Gandhi led Indians of different religions and regions in South Africa, uniting Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Parsis from various social classes, including rich merchants and poor laborers.
• Lessons in Leadership: Gandhi learned the challenges of leadership in South Africa, facing threats from both enemies and followers, making unpopular decisions when necessary.
• Evolution of Political Style: South Africa allowed Gandhi to develop his political style and leadership, transitioning from a 'Moderate' to a 'Gandhian' phase in the movement.
• Introduction of Gandhian Method: Having tested the Gandhian method in South Africa, Gandhi was ready to introduce it on a larger scale in India.

Gandhi's Return to India (1915)

• Invitation by Gokhale: Gandhi returned to India in January 1915 at the request of Gokhale, conveyed through C.F. Andrews. He was already recognized internationally as a leading Indian nationalist and organizer due to his efforts in South Africa.
• Initial Year of Observation: Following Gokhale's advice, Gandhi spent his first year in India observing the country and its conditions without taking a public stand on any political issue.
• Touring India: Gandhi toured the country to understand the conditions of the masses better. He also organized the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad in 1917, where he and his followers would live a community life. The initial Ashram was the Satyagraha Ashram at the Kocharab Bungalow of Jivanlal Desai, established in 1915.
• Distance from Politics: During his second year, Gandhi maintained a distance from political affairs, including the Home Rule Movement. His political views did not align with the prevailing political currents in India at the time.
• Shift from Moderate Methods: Gandhi's faith in 'Moderate' methods had eroded, he disagreed with the Home Rulers about the timing of the Home Rule agitation, especially during the First World War.
• Joining Political Organizations: Gandhi explained his reluctance to join existing political organizations by stating that he could only join an organization to influence its policy, not to be influenced by it. He sought to join movements that adopted non-violent Satyagraha as their method of struggle.

Reasons of Gandhi’s rise popular appeal

• Gandhi's experience in South Africa significantly contributed to his rise in India. His struggle for Indian rights there showcased his organizational skills and ability to mobilize the masses through Satyagraha.
• In India, Gandhi recognized the limitations of moderate politics and was not in favor of the Home Rule agitation during World War I. He believed it was not the right time for such a movement.
• He was convinced that non-violent Satyagraha was the most effective method for achieving nationalist goals and refused to join any political organization that did not adhere to this principle.
• Gandhi's personal traits, such as his organizational skills, concern for the masses, innovative political ideology, broad social outlook, helped him gain national leadership and establish ideological dominance in the freedom movement.
• He had a clear understanding of India's pluralistic society but was committed to the idea of a united India.
• For the younger generation, weary of the conflicts between moderates and extremists, Gandhi offered a fresh perspective.
• Gandhi positioned himself as a leader independent of both moderates and extremists, allowing him to make a fresh start and gain widespread acceptance.
• His commitment to non-violence appealed to various classes, including women and capitalists, who feared the consequences of violence.
• By 1915-17, both moderates and extremists were at an impasse, Gandhi's arrival provided a new direction.
• The immediate aftermath of World War I included a sharp increase in defense spending, leading to significant national debt, rising taxes, inflation. This created near famine conditions in many areas, exacerbated by the influenza outbreak.
• Prices of industrial and imported goods were rising, while exporting raw materials remained cheap, impacting common people and leading to various Kisan movements.
• Gandhi's political ideology resonated with some fully and many partially, as it offered something for everyone. However, religion had a stronger influence on the masses, prompting Gandhi to effectively use religious idioms for mobilization. This approach was not revivalism but rather an appeal to religious morality.
• Although Gandhi spoke of swaraj as his political goal, he never explicitly defined it, allowing different interpretations. This ambiguity enabled him to unite diverse communities under his leadership.
• Gandhi was more inclined to transfer power from western-educated elites to the masses. His deep concern for the masses, total identification with them, strong roots in Indian soil contributed significantly to his rise.
• His close association with issues already ingrained in the consciousness and psyche of the Indian people, along with his use of vernacular language, half-naked attire, the discarding of the sacred thread as a protest against discrimination against Shudras, endeared him to the people. He became a symbol of India's poverty and the hardships faced by common people.
• The novelty of his political methods, such as Satyagraha, marches, civil disobedience, captured the imagination of both the masses and leaders. These methods had already proven effective in South Africa and during his early activism in India.
• Gandhi's commitment to Hindu-Muslim equality, the upliftment of Harijans, the end of exploitation of depressed classes reflected his broader political outlook. Between 1917 and 1918, he was involved in struggles in Champaran, Ahmedabad, Kheda before launching the Rowlatt Satyagraha.

Champaran Satyagraha, the first Satyagraha movement inspired by Gandhi, took place in Champaran district of Bihar and Kheda district of Gujarat in 1916 and 1918, respectively. Although Champaran Satyagraha was the first to be initiated, the term Satyagraha was used for the first time during the Anti-Rowlatt agitation.

Champaran Satyagraha (1917): The First Civil Disobedience Movement

• Gandhi was approached by Rajkumar Shukla to address the issues faced by indigo planters in Champaran, Bihar.
• European planters forced peasants to grow indigo on 3/20 of their land(tinkathia system). After the rise of German synthetic dyes, planters imposed high rents and illegal dues to maximize profits before peasants could switch to other crops. Peasants were also forced to sell their produce at prices set by the Europeans.
• When Gandhi, along with figures like Rajendra Prasad and Mazhar-ul-Haq, arrived in Champaran to investigate, authorities ordered him to leave. Gandhi defied this order, marking a novel approach of civil disobedience.
• Eventually, authorities allowed Gandhi to conduct an inquiry, leading to the formation of a government committee with Gandhi as a member.
• Gandhi convinced the authorities to abolish the tinkathia system and compensate peasants for illegal dues. A compromise was reached where only 25 percent of the money taken would be refunded.
• Landlords, guided by the British government, agreed to grant more compensation and control over farming to poor farmers, along with canceling revenue hikes and collections until the famine ended.
• During this agitation, Gandhi earned the titles Bapu(Father) and Mahatma(Great Soul) from the people.
• When criticized for not demanding a full refund, Gandhi explained that even a partial refund had significantly damaged the planters’ prestige. His assessment proved correct, as the planters left the district within a decade.
• While in Champaran, Gandhi established an ashram and organized supporters and volunteers. He conducted surveys of villages to document atrocities and suffering.
• Gandhi initiated village clean-ups, established schools and hospitals, encouraged the abolition of purdah, untouchability, the suppression of women. He was joined by young nationalists from across India.

Ahmedabad Cotton Mill Strike (1918)—First Hunger Strike:

• Gandhi stepped in to mediate a conflict between the mill owners in Ahmedabad and the workers regarding the discontinuation of the plague bonus.
• The mill owners aimed to withdraw the bonus, while the workers were demanding a 50% wage increase.
• Gandhi advised the workers to strike for a 35% wage increase. The employers were only willing to offer a 20% bonus.
• He urged the workers to remain non-violent during the strike. Over time, the workers showed signs of fatigue, with declining attendance at meetings and increasing hostility towards those who crossed the picket line.
• In response, Gandhi decided to undertake a fast unto death to inspire the workers and reinforce their determination to persist.
• His fast also exerted pressure on the mill owners, who eventually agreed to a 35% wage increase for the workers.

Kheda Satyagraha (1918) - First Non-Cooperation Movement:

•  Due to a severe drought in 1918, crops in the Kheda district of Gujarat failed. 
•  According to the Revenue Code, farmers were entitled to a tax remission if their yield was less than one-fourth of the normal produce. 
•  However, the authorities refused to grant this remission. 
•  In support of the peasants, Gandhi urged them to withhold their tax payments. 
•  In response, the government sent collectors and inspectors to seize property and cattle. 
•  The police confiscated lands and agrarian property. 
•  The farmers did not resist arrest or retaliate with violence. 
•  Instead, they donated their cash and valuables to the Gujarat Sabha, which was organizing the protest under Gandhi's leadership. 
•  The discipline and unity displayed by the farmers were remarkable. 
•  Even when their personal property, land, livelihoods were taken away, the majority of Kheda's farmers remained united in their support for Patel. 
•  Those who attempted to buy the confiscated lands were ostracized. 
•  The authorities, unwilling to openly concede to the peasants' demands, issued secret instructions allowing only those who could afford to pay to do so. 
•  During the Kheda Satyagraha, many young nationalists, including Sardar Patel, Indulal Yagnik, N.M. Joshi, Shankerlal Pareekh, became followers of Gandhi. 

Gains from Champaran, Ahmedabad, Kheda:

• Gandhi showed people the effectiveness of his Satyagraha method.
• He connected with the masses and gained a better understanding of their strengths and weaknesses.
• He earned the respect and commitment of many, especially the youth.

Gandhi's Call for Protest Against the Rowlatt Act:

• After World War I, nationalists in India expected positive changes from the British government. However, they were met with the oppressive Rowlatt Act, which sparked outrage. In February 1919, Gandhi urged a nationwide protest against this act.

Details of the Rowlatt Act:

• The Rowlatt Act was introduced by the Imperial Legislative Council in London on March 10, 1919.
• It aimed to extend emergency measures from World War I to manage public unrest in India.
• The act was based on the Rowlatt Committee's recommendations, chaired by British judge Sidney Rowlatt.
• Authorities could imprison individuals suspected of terrorism for up to two years without trial.
• Stricter press controls, warrantless arrests, indefinite detention, juryless trials for certain political offenses were established.
• Accused individuals were not informed of their accusers or the evidence against them.
• Convicted individuals had to provide securities for release and were barred from political, educational, or religious activities.
• The Rowlatt Act faced strong opposition from Indian leaders and the public.
• In response, Gandhi and others organized a nationwide hartal (strike) on April 6, 1919.
• The movement became known as the Rowlatt Satyagraha, with Gandhi labeling the act as the "black act".
• The situation underwent a significant transformation.
• The masses were directed to take action rather than merely expressing grievances.
• Peasants, artisans, the urban poor began to play a crucial role in the struggle.
• The national movement shifted its focus permanently to the masses.
• Gandhi believed that the awakening and involvement of the masses in politics were essential for salvation.
• Although Satyagraha was scheduled to start on April 6, 1919, there were already widespread violent anti-British protests in cities like Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Ahmedabad.
• In Punjab, the situation was particularly tense due to wartime repression, forced recruitments, disease outbreaks, leading to military intervention.
• April 1919 witnessed the largest and most violent anti-British uprising since 1857.
• To suppress the movement, the government resorted to repression, especially in Punjab under Lieutenant-Governor Sir Michael O’Dyer.
• Prominent leaders Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal were arrested in Punjab.
• In response to these arrests, an unarmed crowd gathered on April 13, 1919, at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar to protest.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919)

• Baisakhi day saw a large crowd gather in Jallianwala Bagh to protest.
• The protest was against the arrest of leaders Saifuddin Kitchlew and Satyapal.
• The Army, under General Dyer, surrounded the gathering.
• They blocked the only exit and opened fire on the unarmed crowd.
• This tragic incident resulted in the deaths of around 1,000 people.
• After the massacre, martial law was proclaimed in Punjab.
• This led to brutalities against the inhabitants of Amritsar.
• The incident shocked the entire nation.
• Rabindranath Tagore renounced his knighthood in protest.
• Gandhi withdrew the movement on April 18, 1919, due to the atmosphere of violence.
• The Congress party boycotted the special committee headed by Lord Hunter.
• This committee was set up to investigate the killings.
• In March 1922, the Government of India repealed the Rowlatt Act and other laws.
• This action was in acceptance of the report from the Repressive Laws Committee.