Pandyas: Polity and Administration | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Pandya Dynasty

The Pandyan dynasty, also known as the Pandyas of Madurai, was an ancient Tamil dynasty in South India. They were one of the four great kingdoms of Tamilakam, alongside the Pallavas, Cholas, and Cheras. The Pandyas were part of the Muvendar, which refers to the three ruling families of Tamil Nadu: the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas. The dynasty has been traced back to at least the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE and experienced periods of imperial dominance, particularly from the 6th to 10th centuries CE and again under the Later Pandyas from the 13th to 14th centuries CE.

Early History and Rise to Power:

• The Pandyan dynasty is believed to have existed since the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE.
• During their early history, the Pandyas were one of the Muvendar, the three ruling families in southern India, alongside the Cholas and Cheras.
• The term Muvendar refers to the heads of these three ruling families.

Imperial Dominance:

• During the 6th to 10th centuries CE, the Pandyas were part of the political landscape dominated by the Chalukyas of Badami or Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, the Pallavas of Kanchi, and the Pandyas of Madurai.
• Under Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I and Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I, the Pandyas expanded their territory significantly, including regions of present-day South India and northern Sri Lanka.
• The Pandyas often ruled or invaded fertile areas such as the estuary of Kaveri(Chola country), the ancient Chera country (Kongu and central Kerala), Venadu (southern Kerala), the Pallava country, and Sri Lanka.

Decline and Resurgence:

• The Pandyas faced decline with the rise of the Cholas of Thanjavur in the 9th century, leading to constant conflict between the two dynasties.
• During this period, the Pandyas formed alliances with the Sinhalese and the Cheras to resist the Chola Empire.
• Despite the challenges, the Pandyas found opportunities to revive their power, particularly during the late 13th century.

Golden Age:

• The Pandyas entered a golden age under Maravarman I and Jatavarman Sundara Pandya I in the 13th century.
• Maravarman I made early attempts to expand into Chola territory, but faced resistance from the Huna invaders of the Hoysalas.
• Jatavarman I (c. 1251) successfully expanded the kingdom into the Telugu country, south Kerala, and northern Sri Lanka.
• The city of Kanchi became a secondary capital for the Pandyas during this period.

Conflicts and Internal Crisis:

• The Hoysalas were generally limited to the Mysore Plateau, and King Somesvara of the Hoysala dynasty was killed in battle with the Pandyas.
• Maravarman Kulasekhara I (1268) defeated an alliance of the Huna Hoysalas and the Chola invaders (1279) and strengthened ties with Sri Lanka.
• During this time, the Pandyas also acquired the Tooth Relic of the Buddha, a significant religious artifact.
• The rule of the kingdom was shared among several royals, with one enjoying primacy over the others.

Khalji Invasion and Aftermath:

• An internal crisis within the Pandya kingdom coincided with the Khalji invasion of south India in 1310–11.
• The political crisis that followed led to more sultanate raids and plunder, resulting in the loss of south Kerala (1312) and north Sri Lanka (1323).
• The Madurai sultanate was established in 1334, marking a significant shift in power.
• The Pandyas of Ucchangi (9th–13th century) in the Tungabhadra Valley were related to the Pandyas of Madurai.

Cultural Contributions:

• According to tradition, the legendary Sangams(“the Academies”) were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas.
• Some Pandyan rulers were also known to be poets themselves, contributing to the cultural and literary heritage of the region.
• Pandya Nadu was home to renowned temples, including the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, a significant religious site.
• The revival of Pandya power by Kadungon(7th century CE) coincided with the prominence of the Shaivite nayanars and the Vaishnavite alvars, important figures in Tamil religious history.
• The Pandya rulers followed Vedism, and Shravanism is part of Vedic principles.

Origin and Sources of the Early Pandya Dynasty

• The early Pandya chieftains governed their territory, known as Pandya Nadu, from ancient times. This region included the inland city of Madurai and the southern port of Korkai.
• The Pandyas are praised in the earliest Tamil poetry, specifically in Sangam literature.
• In the epic poem Silappatikaram, it is mentioned that the emblem of the Pandyas was a fish.
• Various historical sources, such as Graeco-Roman accounts from the 4th century BCE, the edicts of Maurya emperor Ashoka, coins with legends in Tamil-Brahmi script, and Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, indicate the continuity of the Pandya dynasty from the 3rd century BCE to the early centuries CE.
• The Greek ambassador Megasthenes, who served under Chandragupta Maurya, referred to the Queens of the Pandyas as 'Pandaia'  and placed them in the southern part of India, extending into the ocean. He described a region consisting of 365 villages that supplied the royal palace daily throughout the year. Megasthenes also described the queen as the daughter of Heracles, although some authors suggest she was the daughter of Shiva or Krishna.
• The capital of the Pandyas,Madurai, is mentioned in Kautilya’s Arthashastra(4th century BCE) as the 'Mathura of the south.'
• The Pandyas are also referenced in the inscriptions of Maurya emperor Ashoka, particularly in the 3rd century BCE. In his inscriptions, such as the 2nd and 13th Major Rock Edicts, Ashoka mentions the peoples of South India, including the Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas, and Satiyaputras.
• The renowned Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang noted that the Pandyan princes were feudatories of the Pallavas and that he traveled to Kanchi in the mid-7th century CE.
• The early historic Pandyas are celebrated in the oldest available Tamil poetry, which refers to about twelve Pandya rulers.
• According to tradition, the legendary Sangams, or "the Academies," were held in Madurai under the patronage of the Pandyas.
• Several Tamil literary works, such as Iraiyanar Agapporul, mention the legend of three separate Sangams and attribute their patronage to the Pandyas.

Pandyas: Polity and Administration

The King

• The head of the government was the king, who was a hereditary monarch and ruled with absolute discretion.
• Succession to the throne was typically hereditary, but there were instances of usurpation and even unique methods of selection, such as using a royal elephant to choose a successor by garlanding them.
• The king could be crowned at any age and reigned for life or until he chose to step down. He was highly revered by his subjects, often equated to a divine figure.
• Despite his revered status, the king had heavy responsibilities towards his subjects and was accountable for any misfortunes that befell them.
• The dynastic emblem of the Pandyas was the double carp, used for official purposes like royal authentication. This emblem appeared on coins, seals, and cargo at ports.

Court

• The king’s court included royal officers such as ministers, generals, commanders, and accountants. However, his power was checked by the Aimberunguzhu or the Five Great Assemblies.
• These assemblies consisted of:
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  • Maasanam Representatives safeguarding people’s rights.
  • Paarpar Priests directing religious ceremonies.
  • Maruthar Physicians handling health matters.
  • Nimithar Astrologers fixing auspicious times and predicting events.
  • Amaichar Ministers managing revenue and justice.
• Enberaayam or the Eight Groups of Attendants assisted the king, though its exact composition is debated.
• The principal state officers included the high priest, chief astrologer, ministers, and army commanders.
• Kings and local chiefs established Brahmin settlements called Mangalam or Chaturvedimangalam, offering irrigation facilities and named after royal or deity figures.
• Royal officials had various titles:
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  • Prime Minister: Uttaramantri
  • Royal Secretariat: Eluttu Mandapam
  • Military Commanders: Palli Velan, Parantakan Pallivelan, Maran Adittan, Tennavan Tamizhavel

Administration

• The Pandya territory, known as Pandymandalam, Thenmandalam, or Pandynadu, was characterized by rocky, hilly regions and mountain ranges, except for areas around the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni.
• The king divided his territory into administrative units called Koorrams, further divided into Mandalam, and then into sub-provinces called Nadus, which comprised many villages.
• A locality within a town or village was called Ur, and each neighborhood within an Ur was a Cheri.
• While the king ruled from the capital Madurai, he sometimes delegated authority over principalities (Koorram) to senior royal family members or feudal lords.
• The Cilappatikaram describes how Nedunj Cheliyan I ruled from Madurai while his brother managed the Korkai principality.
• Villages, the core administrative units, were governed by elders recognized and appointed based on their age and societal status.
• Two institutions managed village affairs:
• Ambalam or Avai(a small building on a platform) and Manram or Podiyil (a simple structure around a tree).
• These institutions handled judicial, administrative, and financial tasks, including police duties, dispute resolution, sanitation, royal order communication, land surveys, revenue assessment, and road and irrigation maintenance.
• The king’s revenue officers were responsible for transmitting locally collected taxes to the royal treasury.

Judicial System

• Justice was provided free of charge by judges and magistrates appointed by the king, who was the ultimate authority in all civil and criminal cases.
• Monarchs took pride in their just governance. The Cilapatikaram describes a Pandyan king who died of remorse for his injustices.
• Judges were expected to be knowledgeable, honest, experienced, and elderly.

Civil and Criminal Litigation:

• Civil litigation often arose from issues like mortgage, lease, trust property, loans, and breach of contract, with no time limits for filing.
• Common criminal offenses included theft, adultery, forgery, and treason.

Dispensation of Justice:

• In the capital, the king presided over his own court to dispense justice.
• In villages, elders were responsible for meting out justice.

Village Justice Committees:

• Village assemblies had Nyayattars committees that conducted trials under ceremonial trees.
• Trials involved detailed procedures for evidence gathering and judgment.

Trial by Ordeal:

• In some cases, a trial by ordeal was used, where the defendant underwent torture, and if unscathed, was considered innocent.

Punishments:

• Punishments were severe, deterring crime. Offenders caught in the act of burglary, adultery, or spying faced death penalties.
• Those giving false testimony had their tongues cut off.

Prisons and Prisoners:

• Prisons held not only the guilty but also war captives. Prisoners were chained and guarded by warders.
• Releasing prisoners during festive occasions was common, and some were sent into the sea for pearl fishing.

Military and Warfare:

• The king served as the chief commander of the army, often leading troops into battle.
• The military was divided into four branches: infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry.
• The military arsenal included a variety of weapons such as shields, swords, spears, tridents, maces, bows, and arrows.
• Victorious wars could result in annexation of new territories or the submission of enemies, who would then recognize the victor's dominance and pay tribute.

Revenue and Expenditure

• The main sources of royal revenue included taxes, tributes, customs duties, and tolls.
• Taxes, known as Karai or Irai, were levied at the king's discretion, along with tributes called Tirai and customs tolls called Sungam.
• Major types of taxes included land tax (paid in money or kind) and income tax (one-sixth of an individual's income).
• Other revenue sources included tributes from feudal subordinates, war booty, presents from loyal subjects, treasure troves, land revenue, cess, and forced gifts.
• Tolls were collected on trunk roads used by caravans and at kingdom frontiers, while customs were levied at seaports for imported goods.
• Exports of locally manufactured goods like textiles and pearls brought substantial foreign exchange to the royal treasury.
• The king took one-tenth of total earnings from pearl diving and sales as royalty.
• Expenditures included military expenses, gifts to poets and temples, maintenance of educational and health services, infrastructure like roads and irrigation, and palace household expenses.
• Tax remissions and army recruitment and maintenance costs significantly impacted the treasury.
• The palace housed not only the royal family but also merchants, officials, and entertainers, all of whom needed to be compensated, contributing to major expenditures.

Social and Political Aspects

During the Pandya reign, royal palaces were referred to as Tirumaligai and Manaparanan Tirumaligai. The royal couches used by the kings were named after local chiefs, which served to legitimize the kings' authority over the land.

The political division of land during this period was organized as follows:

• Salabogam: Land assigned to Brahmins.
• Tattarkani: Land allocated to ironsmiths.
• Taccu-maniyam: Land designated for carpenters.
• Bhattavriutti: Land donated to Brahmin groups for educational purposes.

A scholar named Wassaff noted that horse trade was quite common during this time. Other traded goods included spices, pearls, precious stones, elephants, and birds.

Kayalpattinam, located in the present-day Thoothukudi district, was the busiest port town under the Pandyas.

Literacy was actively promoted during this period through various methods by the administrators. Singers were appointed to recite Bhakti hymns in temples to encourage literacy, and theatrical plays were performed on similar themes.

Religious Beliefs

• It is believed that the Pandavas initially followed Jainism but later converted to Saivism.
• The Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas undertook the repair of numerous temples, endowing them with gold and land. They also extended patronage to Vedic practices.
• The inscriptions from the Pandya period reflect the rulers' impartiality towards both Saivism and Vaishnavism. While the early Pandyas were known for constructing many temples, the medieval and later Pandyas focused on maintaining the existing temples without building new ones.