Cholas: Art and Architecture | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Overview

• After the Pallavas, the Chola dynasty rose to prominence as the dominant power in Southern India, surpassing other kingdoms.
• The capital of the Chola dynasty was Thanjavur. The Cholas expanded their reach to places like Bengal, Sri Lanka, Java, and Sumatra, establishing trade connections as far as Indonesia.
• Their military and economic strength was evident in the grand architectural achievements during this period, particularly in Thanjavur, Gangaikondcholpuram, Darasuram, and Tribhuvanam.
• The Cholas constructed over two hundred temples, continuing the Pallava architectural tradition with some modifications. Initially, the Chola kings built brick temples, later transitioning to stone temples.

Early Chola Architecture

• The first Chola ruler,Vijayalaya Chola,constructed a stone temple at Narttamalai, which is considered one of the finest examples of early Chola temple architecture.
• Aditya-I, another significant Chola ruler, commissioned the Balasubramaniya temple in Kannanur and the Thirukkatalai temple.
• The Nageswarar temple at Kumbakonam is renowned for its intricate sculptural work.

Later Chola Architecture

• King Parantaka I erected the Koranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur(Trichy District), and the Muvarkoil of Kodumbalur stand out as excellent examples of later Chola architecture and sculpture.
• Among the numerous temples from the Chola period, the Brhadeeswarar temple at Tanjore, also known as the Big Temple, is a monumental landmark in South Indian architecture. Built by Rajaraja I, it is the largest and tallest temple in Tamil Nadu and showcases significant architectural features.
• Rajendra Chola constructed a famous temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, further enhancing the Chola legacy in art and architecture.
• King Kulothunga I built a temple for the Sun God at Kumbakonam, notable for being the first of its kind in South Indian architecture.
• Rajaraja II commissioned the Airavatheeswarar temple at Dharasuram.
• These temples exemplify the architectural style from the 8th to the 12th century CE, which also influenced temple architecture in Ceylon and Southeast Asian kingdoms like Sri Vijaya(Sumatra) and Chavakam(Java).
• Raj Raja I also built a Shiva temple at Polanuruva in Sri Lanka, reflecting the Chola architectural style.

Features of Chola Architecture

• Chola temples are divided into two categories: Early Temples and Later Temples. Early temples show the influence of Pallava architecture, while later ones are influenced by Chalukya architecture.
• Unlike Nagara temples, Chola temples were surrounded by high boundary walls.
• Initially, the temples were modest in size, but later ones became large and impressive, with vimanas or gopuras dominating the landscape.
• In the early stages, the gopuram was more prominent, but over time, the vimana became the focal point.
• The spire, known as the Vimana, is in the form of a stepped pyramid. Pallava influence is seen in the spire/vimana, which is similar to the Rathas, featuring an octagonal crowning element called the Shikhara.
• The sanctums of Chola temples can be circular or square in shape, and the walls of the inner sanctum sanctorum are elaborately decorated. Above the sanctum, special vimanas are constructed with dome-shaped sikharas and kalasas, which are also found on top of the gopurams.
• Chola temples often follow the Panchayatan style, but subsidiary shrines lack vimanas.
• Unlike Pallava architecture, lion motifs are absent from the bases of pillars, but Kudus decorations are present, albeit with some differences from Pallava designs.
• The typical structure of a Chola temple includes a garbhagriha(sanctum),antarala(vestibule), and shabhamandapa(assembly hall). Many temples feature pillared halls, such as arthamandapa, mahamandapa, and nandi mandapa.
• Chola temples also include water tanks within their boundaries.
• The primary materials used in construction are blocks of gneiss and granite.
• Examples of Early Chola temples include the Vijayalaya temple, while Later Chola architecture is exemplified by the Brihadishwar temple in Tanjore and the Brihadishwar temple in Gangaikondacholapuram.
• A distinctive feature of Chola architecture is the purity of artistic tradition, with sculptures and inscriptions intricately carved into the temple walls.

Vijayalaya Temple:

• Constructed by Vijayalaya Choleshwar, the founder of the Chola dynasty, in the 9th century CE.
• Located in Nartmalai, Pudukkottai district, a cluster of small hills 25 km from Trichy on the Trichy-Pudukkottai route.
• The west-facing temple is situated within a square courtyard and is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• It features a four-tiered structure, with the first three tiers being square and the top tier circular, giving it a pyramidal shape.
• At the top, there is an oval-shaped shikhara with a finial resembling a kalash.
• A mandapa is situated in front of the square sanctum, with a decorated entrance flanked by carved dwarpalakas on both sides.
• Surrounding the main temple are seven smaller temples, all facing the main temple.
• The kornis portion features kudu decoration.

Brihdeshwar Temple:

• The later phase of Chola architecture begins around the time of Uttam Chola.
• The most significant example from this period is the Brihdeeshwar Temple in Tanjore (Thanjavur), dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• The temple complex is known as Raja Rajeshwaram and Peruvudaiyaar, and it was considered the 'Dakhina Meru', a counterpart to the sacred
  'Uttara Meru' mountain in Kailas.
• Regarded as one of the largest temples in India, it is the first fully granite temple in the world, built entirely of granite blocks not found within a 100 km radius. The massive granite blocks were transported from an unknown location.
• Constructed in 1010 CE under Raj Raja I, the temple is surrounded by fortified walls likely added in the 16th century.
• There are three main entrances: the Keralantakam(30 m high gopuram, commemorating Raj Raja’s victory over the Chera king), the Rasarasan(leading to the main shrine), and the Tiruannukam(northern entrance without a gopuram).
• Various sub-shrines were added in later periods. The temple plan includes the garbhagriha, ardhamandap, mahamandap, stapana-mahamandap, and vadya-mandapa.
• The sanctum, 28 m square, houses an extraordinary 8.7 m high lingam. The main shikhar, or srivimana, is about 66 m high with 14 stories, adorned with niches and images of the Saiva cult.
• A dome supported by a 25 feet square single block of granite, decorated with two Nandis at the corners, sits atop the temple.
• In front of the temple is a large Nandi Mandap featuring the second-largest monolithic Nandi in India, after the colossal bull in the Lepakshi Veerbhadra Temple in Andhra Pradesh.
• The circumambulatory corridor around the ardhamandapa is decorated with fresco paintings depicting various secular themes, discovered in the early 20th century.
• This UNESCO World Heritage monument is renowned for having the tallest temple tower in the world, built with 1,30,000 tons of granite stone.
• The temple has withstood six earthquakes.

Airavatesvara Temple:

• The Airavatesvara Temple, a Hindu temple showcasing Dravidian architecture, is located in Kumbakonam, Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu.
• Built in the 12th century CE by the Chola emperor Rajaraja II, the temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the Great Living Chola Temples, alongside the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur and the Gangaikondacholisvaram Temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram.
• Dedicated to Shiva, the temple also reflects the Vaishnavism and Shaktism traditions of Hinduism and includes legends associated with the Nayanmars, the saints of the Shaivism Bhakti movement.
• The main temple, dedicated to Shiva, is based on a square plan but features depictions of other Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Durga, Surya, Harihara, and Ardhanarishvara. The temple opens to the sunrise, and its sanctum and mandapas are aligned on an east-west axis.
• In addition to the main shrine, the temple complex includes several smaller shrines, gopura, and other monuments, some of which are partially ruined or restored from later centuries.
• The temple is renowned for its bronze sculptures, wall artwork, Nandi depictions, and the scale of its tower. Although smaller than the Brihadisvara temples at Tanjavur and Gangaikondacholisvaram, it is noted for its ornate style. Unlike its predecessors, the inner sanctum lacks a circumambulatory path.
• The inner sanctum houses a shiva-linga, an aniconic representation of the god. The main tower, at 24 m in height, is shorter than those of the earlier temples.
• The front pillared hall, or agra mandapa, is designed as a horse-drawn chariot, drawing inspiration from Pallava architecture. Its columns are adorned with representations of stories from the epics and Puranas, including the burning of Manmatha, Parvati’s penance, Shiva’s marriage, the birth of Skanda/Kumara, and Shiva’s battles with the asuras.
• The outer pillars of the agra mandapa are decorated with gaja-yalis, and the temple features numerous other representations.
• The base of the main temple is distinguished by a stone frieze of panels depicting stories associated with the 63 nayanmars (Shiva saints), as well as women in yoga postures and scenes from everyday life.
• The temple also includes an impressive Amman shrine, dedicated to Devi, and the perimeter wall features pillared cloisters with cells for deities. A staircase leading to the pillared cloisters is adorned with the celebrated 'Rishaba Kunjaram' stone sculpture of a conjoined bull and elephant.

Sculpture

• Stone and metal sculptures are found in plenty in Chola temples. They depict the socio religious ideas of the Chola period.
• The Nataraja sculpture is world famous not only for its beauty but also for its spiritual meaning. Vishnu idol is placed in Vaishnava temples.
• There is a certain kind of spiritual calmness in the sculptural representations of the Vishnu idols in the Vaishanava temples or that of the Alwars. The temples of the Imperial Cholas are covered with exquisite well composed sculptures and frescoes.
• The artists used the lost wax technique and followed the complete Indian Shilpa Shastra. The sculptures during this period are described as the cultural epitome of Chola period and are the best specimen of Chola art.
• The Cholas made use of sculptures to decorate the walls, pillars and roofs. The value of sculpture is very much felt on Chola works. The decorative sculptures are still there.
• Realism dominated sculpture of the Chola period. Scenes from Ramayanam, Mahabharatam, Puranas and lives of the 63 Nayanmars are sculptured in narrative panels on the walls of temples.

Portraits

• The Cholas excelled the Pallavas in the art of portrait making.
• The best specimens of portraits are found on the walls of Koranganatha temple and Nageswarasamy temple. The portraits of Cholamadevi and Kulothunga-III are there in Kalahasti temple. They are good examples of Chola art of portrait making.

Paintings

• The art of paintings flourished, Figures were painted with realism. The proficiency of’ the Chola painters are seen on their paintings. Paintings in Big temple are good examples.
• Scenes of Periyapuranam are beautifully depicted Kailasanathar temple at Kanchipuram, Vishnu temple at Malaiyadipatti contain fine specimen of the Chola paintings.
• Rajaraja-I and Rajendra contributed more for the development of the art of painting during the Chola period.

Music

• During the Chola period the art of music was developed. Twenty three panns were used in music. The seven music alphabets sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, da, ni were used.
• The hymns of Alwars and Nayanmars were sung in every temple. Nambiandar nambi and Nathamuni contributed much for the development of music. Books were written on music.
• Several musicians were appointed in Brahadeeswarar temple. Drums, udukkai, veena, flute were famous music instruments.
• Sagadakkottigal formed a group of musicians. Endowments were made to promote music. Musicians were honored by the kings. Temples and mutts imparted training in vocal and instrumental music.

Dance

• The Chola kings patronized the art of dance. Bharatha natyam and kathakali were two types of dances performed during the Chola period.
• Lord Siva was represented as the exponent of Karana dance. Natarajar temple at Chidamparam and Sarangapani temple at Kumbakonam have dancing poses of Lord Nataraja. Rajaraja I appointed 400 dancing girls in the big temple at Tanjore. There were two dance directors to coordinate these dancing girls. Dance dramas were also performed on stages at festival times. Chola kings made endowments to promote the art of dancing.

Drama

• The Cholas promoted the art of drama. Music and dance were affiliated to drama.
• Many types of theatres and stages were there to perform dramas. Rajarajeswara natakam and Rajarajavijayam were the dramas enacted during festival times.
• Drama actors received honors from the Chola kings. Koothu is one type of drama. Koothus were also there. Inscriptions refer about Ariyakuthu, Chakki koothu and Santhi koothu.