The Civil Disobedience Movement | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Purna Swaraj

• Before 1930, few Indian political parties openly supported the goal of political independence from the United Kingdom.
• The All India Home Rule League advocated for Home Rule, similar to the dominion status granted to countries like Australia and Canada.
• The All India Muslim League also favored dominion status and opposed calls for outright Indian independence.
• The Indian Liberal Party, the most pro-British, opposed independence and dominion status if it weakened ties with the British Empire.
• Hasrat Mohani, a Congress leader and poet, was the first to demand complete independence (Purna Swaraj) from the British in 1921.
• Veteran Congress leaders like Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Aurobindo, Bipin Chandra Pal also advocated for explicit Indian independence from the Empire.
• Jawaharlal Nehru promoted the Hindustan Sewa Dal for youth and founded the Republican Party within Congress in December 1927, advocating for independence.
• In August 1928, the Independence of India League was formed with Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose as secretaries.
• The Nehru Report(1928) demanded self-government under dominion status, but younger leaders like Bose and Nehru called for a complete break from British ties.
• In December 1928, Congress in Calcutta saw Gandhi propose a resolution for dominion status within two years, which was later amended to one year after objections from Bose and Nehru.
• On 31 October 1929, Lord Irwin announced a Round Table Conference, but discussions with Gandhi and others ended when Irwin could not assure dominion status.
• At the Lahore Session of Congress in December 1929, presided by Nehru, a landmark resolution was passed rejecting dominion status and calling for complete independence (Poorna Swaraj).
• On the midnight of December 31, 1929, Nehru unfurled the tricolor flag of India’s independence on the bank of River Ravi in Lahore.
• On January 2, 1930, the Congress working committee declared January 26, 1930, as Poorna Swarajya Day.
• The Indian National Congress publicly issued the Declaration of Independence, or Purna Swaraj, on 26 January 1930.
• Congress regularly observed 26 January as Independence Day until 1947 when 15 August became the official Independence Day. The Constitution of India took effect on 26 January 1950 to commemorate the 1930 declaration.

Why Salt?

• The Congress Working Committee assigned Gandhi the task of organizing the first act of civil disobedience.
• Gandhi aimed to start this movement by opposing the British salt tax, enforced through the 1882 Salt Act.
• This act allowed the British to control the collection and production of salt, restricting its handling to government depots and imposing a tax on it.
• Violating this act was considered a criminal offense.
• Although salt could be obtained freely by coastal residents through the evaporation of seawater, Indians were compelled to buy it from the colonial government.
• Initially, Gandhi's focus on the salt tax was met with skepticism by the Congress Working Committee.
• Jawaharlal Nehru and Dibyalochan Sahoo were uncertain, while Sardar Patel proposed a boycott of land revenue instead.
• The British authorities, including Viceroy Lord Irwin, did not take Gandhi's plans for a salt protest seriously.
• Lord Irwin expressed in a letter to London that he was not worried about the prospect of a salt campaign.
• Gandhi had valid reasons for choosing the salt tax as the focus of civil disobedience.
• The salt tax was a powerful symbol because salt was a common necessity for almost everyone in India.
• Unlike abstract political demands, a protest against the salt tax could resonate with people from all walks of life.
• The salt tax constituted 8.2% of the British Raj's tax revenue and disproportionately affected the poorest Indians.
• Gandhi emphasized the importance of salt by stating, "Next to air and water, salt is perhaps the greatest necessity of life."
• He believed that this protest would effectively illustrate the concept of Purna Swaraj (complete self-rule) in a way that was relevant to the most marginalized Indians.
• Additionally, he thought it would promote unity between Hindus and Muslims by addressing a grievance that affected both communities equally.

Dandi March (Salt Satyagraha) (March 12 – April 6, 1930)

• On March 2, 1930, Gandhi notified the viceroy about his plan to march from Ahmedabad to the coast at Dandi, violating the salt law by collecting salt from the beach.
• The march, covering 240 miles through Gujarat, aimed to challenge British authority and inspire civil disobedience.
• Before the march began, thousands gathered at the ashram, Gandhi urged immediate civil disobedience of the salt law, picketing foreign liquor and cloth shops, other forms of protest, all under the principles of truth and non-violence.
• The march started on March 12 and culminated on April 6 when Gandhi collected salt at Dandi, symbolizing Indian resistance to British rule.
• The event was widely covered by newspapers, in Gujarat, 300 village officials resigned in response to Gandhi's call.
• Gandhi established a temporary ashram near Dandi, encouraging further protests against foreign goods and urging educational institutions to close.

Spread of Salt Disobedience:

• After Gandhi's symbolic act at Dandi, the defiance of salt laws spread across the country.
• Tamil Nadu: C. Rajagopalachari led a march from Tiruchirapally to Vedaranniyam.
• Malabar: K. Kelappan led a march from Calicut to Poyannur.
• Assam: Satyagrahis walked from Sylhet to Noakhali (Bengal) to make salt.
• Andhra: Various sibirams (camps) were established in different districts as headquarters for salt Satyagraha.

Gandhi and Nehru's Arrests:

• Nehru was arrested in April 1930 for defying the salt law, which led to large demonstrations in Madras, Calcutta, Karachi.
• Gandhi was arrested on May 4, 1930, after announcing his intention to lead a raid on the Dharsana Salt Works. His arrest triggered massive protests in Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta, especially in Sholapur, where the response was strongest.

After Gandhi's Arrest:

• Following Gandhi's arrest, the Congress Working Committee (CWC) authorized:
• Non-payment of revenue in Ryotwari areas.
• No-chowkidara-tax campaign in zamindari areas.
• Violation of forest laws in the Central Provinces.

Other Forms of Upsurge

Chittagong:

• Surya Sen's group attacked two armouries and announced a provisional government during the Chittagong Revolt.

Peshawar:

• Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, known as Badshah Khan or Frontier Gandhi, politically mobilized the Pathans through educational and social reform. He initiated the first Pushto political magazine Pukhtoon and formed the 'Khudai Khidmatgars,' or 'Red-Shirts,' committed to non-violent resistance in the freedom struggle.
• On April 23, 1930, the arrest of Congress leaders in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) sparked massive demonstrations in Peshawar. The city was largely under crowd control for over a week until order was restored on May 4.
• Subsequent to these events, a period of martial law and terror ensued. Notably, some soldiers from the Garhwal Rifles refused to open fire on unarmed protesters. This unrest in a province with a 92% Muslim population made the British Government uneasy.

Sholapur:

• In this industrial town of southern Maharashtra, the response to Gandhi's arrest was particularly intense. Textile workers initiated a strike on May 7, together with other residents, they burnt liquor shops and other symbols of government authority, including railway stations, police stations, municipal buildings, law courts.
• Activists effectively established a parallel government, which could only be dismantled through the imposition of martial law after May 16.

Dharsana:

• In Dharsana, on May 21, 1930, a group led by Sarojini Naidu, along with Imam Sahib and Manilal (Gandhi's son), attempted to continue the struggle by leading a raid on the Dharsana Salt Works. The unarmed and peaceful crowd faced a harsh response, including a lathicharge, resulting in 2 deaths and 320 injuries.
• This new method of salt Satyagraha was eagerly embraced by people in Wadala (Bombay), Karnataka (Sanikatta Salt Works), Andhra, Midnapore, Balasore, Puri, Cuttack.

Bihar:

• In Bihar, a campaign was launched to refuse payment of the chowkidara tax, urging the resignation of chowkidars and influential members of the chowkidari panchayat responsible for appointing these chowkidars.
• This campaign saw significant success in Monghyr, Saran, Bhagalpur. In response, the government resorted to measures such as beatings, torture, confiscation of property.

Bengal:

• In Bengal, the campaign against chowkidara tax and union-board tax faced repression, leading to confiscation of property.

Gujarat:

• The impact of the movement was felt in Anand, Borsad, Nadiad areas of Kheda district, Bardoli in Surat district, Jambusar in Bharuch district.
• A determined no-tax movement was organized, which included refusal to pay land revenue.
• Villagers crossed into neighboring princely states, such as Baroda, with their families and belongings, camping in the open for months to evade police repression. In retaliation, the police destroyed their property and confiscated their land.

Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Provinces: 

• In these regions, people openly disobeyed forest laws related to grazing and timber restrictions. There were also public sales of forest produce that had been illegally obtained.

Assam: 

• A strong protest was launched against the controversial 'Cunningham circular', which required parents, guardians, students to provide guarantees of good behavior.

United Provinces: 

• A no-revenue campaign was initiated, urging zamindars (landlords) to stop paying revenue to the government. This was coupled with a no-rent campaign calling on tenants to refuse rent payments to zamindars. However, as most zamindars were loyal to the British, the campaign primarily became a no-rent movement. The activity gained momentum in October 1930, particularly in Agra and Rai Bareilly.

Manipur and Nagaland: 

• These regions actively participated in the movement. At just thirteen years old, Rani Gaidinliu from Nagaland led a revolt against foreign rule. She was captured in 1932 and sentenced to life in prison.
• Rani Gaidinliu (1915–1993) was a Naga spiritual and political leader who led a revolt against British rule in India. At the age of 13, she joined the Heraka religious movement of her cousin Haipou Jadonang. The movement later turned into a political movement seeking to drive out the British from Manipur and the surrounding Naga areas. Within the Heraka cult, she came to be considered an incarnation of the goddess Cherachamdinliu.
• Gaidinliu was arrested in 1932 at the age of 16, was sentenced to life imprisonment by the British rulers. Jawaharlal Nehru met her at Shillong Jail in 1937, promised to pursue her release. Nehru gave her the title of "Rani", and she gained local popularity as Rani Gaidinliu.
• She was released in 1947 after India’s independence, continued to work for the upliftment of her people. An advocate of the ancestral Naga religious practices, she staunchly resisted the conversion of Nagas to Christianity. She was honoured as a freedom fighter and was awarded a Padma Bhushan by the Government of India.
• Mobilization of people was also done through various means like prabhat pheries(morning processions), vanar senas(monkey brigades), manjari senas(flower brigades),secret patrikas(secret newsletters), magic lantern shows.

Impact of Agitation

• Imports of foreign cloth and other items declined.
• Government revenue from liquor, excise, land taxes decreased.
• Election participation for the Legislative Assembly was largely boycotted.

Extent of Mass Participation: Various segments of the population were involved in the movement.

Women:

• Gandhi encouraged women to take a leading role in the movement.
• They became a common sight picketing outside liquor shops, opium dens, stores selling foreign cloth.
• The movement was a liberating experience for Indian women, marking their entry into the public sphere.

Students:

• Alongside women, students and youth played a significant role in boycotting foreign cloth and liquor.

Muslims:

• Muslim participation was lower compared to the 1920-22 period due to appeals by Muslim leaders to avoid the movement and government efforts to encourage communal discord.
• However, areas like the NWFP saw strong participation.
• Middle-class Muslim involvement was notable in Senhatta, Tripura, Gaibandha, Bagura, Noakhali, Dacca.
• The Muslim weaving community in Bihar, Delhi, Lucknow was also mobilized effectively.

Merchants and Petty Traders:

• They were very enthusiastic about the movement.
• Traders’ associations and commercial bodies were active in implementing the boycott, especially in Tamil Nadu and Punjab.

Tribals:

• Tribals actively participated in the movement in Central Provinces, Maharashtra, Karnataka.

Workers:

• Workers participated in cities like Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Sholapur.

Peasants:

• Peasants were active in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat.

Government Response—Efforts for Truce:

• The Government was confused and uncertain in 1930, facing a difficult situation where any action would lead to criticism. If they used force, the Congress would accuse them of repression, if they did nothing, the Congress would claim victory.
• Even the decision to arrest Gandhi was delayed due to this indecision.

Use of Repression

• Once the Government decided to repress, they widely used ordinances to ban civil liberties, including restricting the press.
• Provincial governments were allowed to ban civil disobedience organizations, but the Congress Working Committee (CWC) was not declared illegal until June.
• Lathi charges and firing on unarmed crowds resulted in many being killed and wounded, with around 90,000 satyagrahis, including Gandhi and other Congress leaders, being imprisoned.

Impact of Government Actions

• The government repression and the publication of the Simon Commission Report, which did not mention dominion status and was considered regressive, disturbed even moderate political opinion.
• In July 1930, the viceroy proposed a round table conference and reaffirmed the goal of dominion status, suggesting that Tej Bahadur Sapru and M.R. Jayakar try to mediate between the Congress and the Government.
• In August 1930, Motilal Nehru and Jawaharlal Nehru went to Yeravada Jail to meet Gandhi and discuss a potential settlement.

Demands of the Nehrus and Gandhi

• The Nehrus and Gandhi clearly stated their demands for the settlement:
• Right of secession from Britain
• Complete national government with control over defense and finance
• Independent tribunal to settle Britain’s financial claims
• The talks ended unsuccessfully at this point.

Evaluation of Civil Disobedience Movement 

Was Gandhi-Irwin Pact a Retreat?

• Gandhi's choice to halt the civil disobedience movement, as per the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, was not a sign of retreat because:
• Mass movements are typically short-lived.
• Unlike activists, the masses have a limited capacity for making sacrifices.
• After September 1930, there were indications of exhaustion, particularly among shopkeepers and merchants who had initially participated with enthusiasm.
• Gandhi's reasons for reaching an agreement with the Viceroy can be understood through his approach.
• The Satyagraha movements were often characterized as struggles, rebellions, or wars without violence. However, these terms emphasized the negative aspects of the movements, such as opposition and conflict.
• The true aim of Satyagraha was not to eliminate or morally weaken an opponent but to initiate a psychological process through suffering that could lead to a meeting of minds and hearts.
• In such a struggle, compromising with an opponent was not seen as betrayal but as a natural and necessary step.
• If a compromise proved to be premature and the opponent remained unrepentant, the Satyagrahi could always resume the non-violent battle.
• Many youths felt disheartened because they had participated with great enthusiasm and hoped for a dramatic conclusion rather than a quiet resolution, as noted by Jawaharlal Nehru.
• Peasants in Gujarat were disappointed because their lands were not restored promptly; in fact, the restoration only occurred during the Congress ministry's rule in the province.
• Despite these disappointments, large segments of the population were elated that the government had to acknowledge the significance of their movement and treat their leader as an equal by signing a pact with him. Political prisoners released from jails were welcomed as heroes.

Differences Between the Non-Cooperation Movement and the Current Movement

• The primary goal this time was complete independence, rather than just addressing two specific issues and a vaguely defined form of self-rule (swaraj).
• The methods employed involved law violations from the outset, rather than merely non-cooperation with foreign rule.
• There was a noticeable decrease in protest forms involving the intelligentsia, such as lawyers quitting their practice and students leaving government schools to join national institutions.
• Muslim participation was significantly lower compared to the Non-Cooperation Movement.
• There was no major labor upsurge associated with the current movement.
• However, the massive involvement of peasants and business groups compensated for the decline in other aspects.
• The number of individuals imprisoned this time was about three times higher.
• The Congress was organizationally stronger compared to the previous movement.Congress Resolutions at Karachi

Special Session of Congress in March 1931

• In March 1931, a special session of the Congress was convened in Karachi to approve the Gandhi-Irwin Pact, also known as the Delhi Pact.
• Just six days before this session, on March 23, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Rajguru were executed. As Gandhi traveled to Karachi, he faced black flag protests from the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha. They were demonstrating against his inability to secure a commutation of the death sentences for Bhagat Singh and his fellow freedom fighters.

The Karachi Session of 1931

The Karachi session of the Indian National Congress, held in 1931, was a significant event in the struggle for India's independence. During this session, the Congress made important decisions and resolutions that reflected its commitment to political and economic issues affecting the Indian population.

Key Decisions and Resolutions:

• The Congress, while condemning political violence, expressed admiration for the bravery and sacrifice of three martyrs.
• The Delhi Pact was supported by the Congress.
• The goal of purna swaraj was reaffirmed.
• Two notable resolutions were passed—one on Fundamental Rights and the other on National Economic Programme—making the session particularly significant.

Resolution on Fundamental Rights:

• The resolution on Fundamental Rights ensured various freedoms and rights for individuals, including:
• Free speech and free press
• Right to form associations
• Right to assemble
• Universal adult franchise
• Equal legal rights regardless of caste, creed, or sex
• Neutrality of the state in religious matters
• Free and compulsory primary education
• Protection of culture, language, script for minorities and linguistic groups

Resolution on National Economic Programme:

• The resolution on National Economic Programme included measures for economic welfare, such as:
• Substantial reduction in rent and revenue
• Exemption from rent for uneconomic holdings
• Relief from agricultural indebtedness
• Control of usury
• Improved working conditions, including a living wage, limited working hours, protection for women workers
• Right for workers and peasants to form unions
• State ownership and control of key industries, mines, means of transport

Significance of the Karachi Resolution:

• This session marked the first time the Congress outlined the meaning of swaraj for the masses, emphasizing that political freedom must encompass the economic freedom of millions facing exploitation and starvation.
• The Karachi Resolution would later serve as the fundamental political and economic framework for the Congress in subsequent years.

Assessment of Civil Disobedience Movement:

• The Salt Satyagraha gained global attention, with millions witnessing the event through newsreels. Gandhi was even named Time magazine's 1930 Man of the Year.
• In 1931, Gandhi was released from prison to engage in discussions with Irwin on equal terms, leading to the Gandhi-Irwin Pact and eventually the Second Round Table Conference.
• Despite the attention, the Salt Satyagraha made little progress towards achieving dominion status or independence, it did not succeed in gaining Muslim support. By 1934, Congress officially ended the Satyagraha policy.
• As Nehru and others distanced themselves from Gandhi, he focused on his Constructive Programme, particularly the fight against untouchability in the Harijan movement.
• Although British authorities regained control by the mid-1930s, global and Indian opinion began to recognize the legitimacy of the demands made by Gandhi and the Congress Party for independence.
• The Satyagraha movement showed the British that their rule in India was based on the consent of the Indian people, marking a critical step towards weakening British control.
• Gandhi's Satyagraha and the March to Dandi later influenced Martin Luther King Jr. in his civil rights movement during the 1960s in America.