Six Schools of Indian Philosophy | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Four Goals of Life

Ancient thinkers believed that once society was organized into different classes (varnas) and a strong government was in place, individuals should aim to achieve four main goals in life:

• Dharma: Upholding social order and righteousness.
• Artha: Aquiring economic resources and wealth.
• Kama: Pursuing physical pleasures and desires.
• Moksha: Attaining spiritual liberation or salvation.

These goals were elaborated in various ancient texts:

• Arthashastra: Written by Kautilya, this text focused on economic matters and governance.
• Dharmashastra: This dealt with laws and regulations governing the state and society.
• Kamasutra: This text discussed physical pleasures and aspects of love.

Moksha and Ancient Philosophy

• While the first three branches primarily focused on material aspects of life, they occasionally touched upon the topic of moksha. The concept of moksha, which refers to liberation from the cycle of birth and death, became a central theme in philosophical texts.
• Although it was initially advocated by Gautama Buddha, the idea was later emphasized by various Brahmanical philosophers.

Six Schools of Philosophy

1. Samkhya
2. Yoga
3. Nyaya
4. Vaisheshika
5. Mimamsa (or Purva Mimamsa)
6. Vedanta (or Uttar Mimansa)

These six schools, known as the astika schools, were originally part of sanatana dharma. They consist of systems of philosophy and theology, each centered around a set of sutras or aphorisms that encapsulate the core teachings of the school.

Vedic Authority and Rishis

• The first four schools accepted the authority of the Vedas but derived their principles from the teachings of individual Rishis or sages rather than directly from the Vedic texts.
• The last two schools, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta, based their systems specifically on the statements of the Vedas.

Structure of the Vedas:
The Rig, Yajur, Sama, and Atharva Vedas are each divided into four parts:

1. Samhita: Collection of hymns.
2. Brahmana: Instructions for rituals.
3. Aranyaka: Transition from ritual to theological discussions.
4. Upanishad: Philosophical teachings and discussions.

The Upanishads, found in the later parts of the Vedas, mark the culmination of Vedic thought and are the focus of Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa.

Purva Mimamsa:

• Purva Mimamsa, meaning "the earlier deliberation," is based on the earlier parts of the Vedas, specifically the Samhitas and Brahmanas. It emphasizes the rituals and instructions found in these texts.

Sankhya

• The term "Samkhya," which means "count," appears to have originated first. This system is attributed to its founder, Kapila Muni.
• In early Samkhya philosophy, the creation of the world did not necessarily require divine intervention. Instead, it emphasized that the world’s creation and evolution were more significantly influenced by Nature (prakriti) rather than by God. This perspective was seen as rational and scientific.
• However, around the fourth century AD, the concept of purusha, or spirit, was integrated into the Samkhya system alongside prakriti. This addition led to the belief that both Nature and the spiritual element were responsible for the creation of the world. Initially, Samkhya was materialistic, but over time it evolved to incorporate spiritualistic elements.

Sankhya recognizes two fundamental principles:

• Prakriti or primordial matter, which encompasses matter, creative agency, and energy.
• Purusha, also known as atma, is eternal, immutable, and conscious by its nature.

Prakriti is inert and undergoes changes when associated with a purusha. It evolves from subtle to gross and manifests the visible world. The state of Jiva (a living being) occurs when purusha is bonded to prakriti in some form.

• This school of thought describes the universe as created by purusha-prakriti entities, combining various elements, senses, feelings, activities, and the mind. It represents a dualist philosophy, focusing on the relationship between self and matter, unlike the Western dualist tradition that emphasizes the mind-body distinction.
• According to Samkhya, a person can achieve salvation through the acquisition of true knowledge, which can end their suffering permanently. A living being can free themselves from ignorance by understanding the distinction between purusha and prakriti (the twenty-four elements constituting matter). This knowledge can be obtained through perception (pratyaksha), inference (anumana), and hearing (shabda), reflecting a scientific approach to inquiry.
• The existence of God or a supreme being is not explicitly affirmed or deemed relevant by Samkhya philosophers.

Yoga

• The Yoga system, founded by Hiranygarbha and later organized and disseminated by the sage Patanjali, offers practical steps for realizing the distinction between purusha and prakriti.
• According to the Yoga school, salvation can be attained through meditation and physical practices. To achieve this, physical exercises in various postures, known as asanas, are prescribed, along with a breathing exercise called pranayama. These methods are believed to divert the mind from worldly concerns and enhance concentration.
• These exercises not only demonstrate an ancient understanding of physiology and anatomy but also reflect a tendency to escape from worldly challenges. Central to this system is the practice of control over pleasure, the senses, and bodily organs.
• Yoga accepts the twenty-five principles of the Sankhya school while incorporating Isvara or God as the twenty-sixth principle, making it more theistic. Patanjali defines yoga as the cessation of all mental modifications, and to achieve this state, he outlines eight steps, leading to the term astanga (eight-limbed) yoga, reminiscent of Buddhism’s Noble Eightfold Path.
• The eight steps are yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, and samadhi. The ultimate goal is to quiet the mind and attain kaivalya, which signifies solitariness or detachment.

Nyaya

• The Nyaya school, also known as the school of analysis, is founded on the Nyaya Sutras, authored by Gautama Muni in the 2nd Century B.C. Its methodology is rooted in a system of logic that has been widely adopted by various Indian schools.
• Nyaya posits that salvation and liberation from suffering can be achieved through the acquisition of knowledge. The validity of a proposition or statement can be assessed through perception, inference, comparison, and testimony. For instance, they employed logic in the following manner:
• There is fire in the mountain because it emits smoke; whatever emits smoke contains fire, such as the hearth.
• According to Nyaya, human suffering arises from errors or defects resulting from actions based on incorrect knowledge, notions, and ignorance. The emphasis on logical reasoning influenced Indian scholars, encouraging systematic thinking and reasoning.
• While Nyaya shares some methodological aspects and the foundation of human suffering with Buddhism, a key distinction is that Buddhism denies the existence of a soul or self. In contrast, the Nyaya school, like other Hindu traditions, upholds the belief in a soul and self, with liberation (moksha) being the state of ignorance removal.

Vaisheshika

• The Vaisheshika school, founded by Kanada in the 6th Century B.C., is characterized by its atomistic and pluralistic approach. This school emphasizes the discussion of material elements or dravya and distinguishes between particularities and their aggregates. According to Vaisheshika, the combination of the five great elements—earth, water, fire, air, and ether (sky)—gives rise to new objects.
• One of the key contributions of the Vaisheshika school is the propounding of the atom theory, which posits that all material objects are composed of atoms. Kanada proposed that the world is made up of atoms (paramanu) and that all objects in the physical universe can be reduced to a finite number of atoms. Moreover, he suggested that Brahman is the fundamental force responsible for causing consciousness in these atoms.

Kanada identified seven padarthas or ontological entities, asserting that understanding these leads to self-realization. The seven padarthas are:

• dravya(substance)
• guna(quality)
• karma(movement)
• samanya(generality)
• vishesha(speciality)
• samavaya(inherence)
• abhava(non-existence)

The Vaisheshika school is considered the beginning of physics in India. However, its scientific perspective was intertwined with beliefs in divinity and spiritualism. This school also placed faith in both heaven and salvation.

Over time, the Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools merged due to their closely related metaphysical theories. While Vaisheshika accepted only perception and inference as sources of valid knowledge, it shared significant common ground with Nyaya philosophy.

Purva Mimamsa or Mimamsa

• Purva Mimamsa, also known as Mimamsa, is a philosophical system propagated by Sage Jaimini, a disciple of Veda Vyasa. The term "Mimamsa" literally means the art of reasoning and interpretation. However, in this context, reasoning was primarily employed to justify various Vedic rituals, making the attainment of salvation contingent upon their performance.
• The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school is to interpret and establish the authority of the Vedas. It emphasizes unquestionable faith in the Vedas and advocates the regular performance of Vedic fire sacrifices as essential for sustaining all activities in the universe. According to the Mimamsa school, the Vedas contain eternal truths, and the essence of the Vedas is dharma.
• By executing dharma, one earns merit, which leads to heaven after death. Conversely, failing to follow one's dharma incurs sin, resulting in suffering in hell. A person enjoys the bliss of heaven as long as their accumulated acts of virtue last. Once these virtues are exhausted, they return to earth. However, if one attains salvation, they are completely freed from the cycle of birth and death.
• To attain salvation, the Mimamsa school strongly recommends the performance of Vedic sacrifices, which require the services of priests and reinforce the social hierarchy among various varnas. Through the propagation of Mimamsa philosophy, the Brahmanas aimed to maintain their ritual authority and preserve the social order based on Brahmanism.

Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta

• Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, is a philosophical school that focuses on the teachings of the Upanishads, which are spiritual contemplations within the Vedas, rather than the Brahmanas, which provide instructions for rituals and sacrifices. The Vedanta school emphasizes meditation, self-discipline, and spiritual connectivity over traditional ritualism.
• The term "Vedanta" means the end of the Veda. This school challenges the conclusion of Purva Mimamsa, asserting that the essential teaching of the Vedas is the realization of Brahman, the Absolute Truth, rather than adherence to dharma through injunctions.
• The foundational text of Vedanta is the Brahmasutra, compiled by Badarayana in the second century BC. Later, two prominent commentaries were written on this text—one by Shankara in the ninth century and the other by Ramanuja in the twelfth century.
• Shankara's interpretation presents Brahman as without attributes, while Ramanuja's view depicts Brahman as having attributes. Shankara emphasizes knowledge (jnana) as the primary means of salvation, whereas Ramanuja advocates devotion or loving faith as the path to salvation.
• Vedanta philosophy traces its roots to the earlier Upanishads. According to this philosophy, Brahman is the ultimate reality, and everything else is considered unreal (maya). The self (soul) or atma is identified with Brahman. Thus, by acquiring knowledge of the self (atma), one also attains knowledge of Brahman and, consequently, salvation. Both Brahman and atma are eternal and indestructible, promoting the idea of stability and unchangeability.
• The theory of karma is closely associated with Vedanta philosophy, implying that individuals must bear the consequences of actions performed in their previous births. Belief in rebirth (punarjanma) becomes a significant aspect not only in Vedanta but also in various other Hindu philosophical systems. This belief underscores that individuals suffer not due to social or worldly causes but because of factors beyond their knowledge or control.

Vedanta is widely regarded as the pinnacle of all six philosophical systems because it deals exclusively with the Absolute Truth and provides a consistent explanation of Reality. Due to the cryptic and poetic nature of the Vedanta sutras, the school later divided into six sub-schools, each offering its interpretation of the texts and producing its commentaries. These sub-schools include:

• Advaita: The most well-known sub-school, which posits that the soul and Brahman are identical.
• Visishtadvaita: This sub-school teaches that the Supreme Being has a specific form, name (Vishnu), and attributes.
• Dvaita: Dvaita espouses the belief in three separate realities: Vishnu, the eternal soul, and matter.
• Dvaitadvaita: This sub-school maintains that Brahman exists independently, while the soul and matter are dependent on Brahman.
• Shuddhadvaita: Shuddhadvaita holds that Krishna is the absolute form of Brahman.
• Acintya Bheda Abheda: This sub-school combines monism and dualism by asserting that the soul is both distinct and non-distinct from Krishna, or God.

These sub-schools can be categorized into two divisions: personal and impersonal. In the personal division, devotion to a Personal God is the means to perfection. In the impersonal division, realization of oneself as the all-pervading, impersonal Absolute Truth is the goal.

• According to the impersonal school known as Advaita, the Absolute Truth or Brahman is formless, devoid of attributes, eternal, and conscious. Brahman is the only reality, while the phenomenal world is an illusion perceived due to ignorance of Brahman. Individual beings are non-different from Brahman.
• In contrast, the personal school asserts that the Absolute Truth is a person, designated as Bhagavan or Purusottama. This Supreme Being has a spiritual form and various attributes. The impersonal aspect described earlier is merely the brilliant light emanating from the transcendental body of this Absolute Person. The world, being a creation of Bhagavan, is real but undergoes cycles of creation and dissolution. The individual beings (jivas) are part of Bhagavan's potency and can never be absolutely non-different from Him.

In summary, the Vedanta school, with its emphasis on the teachings of the Upanishads and the realization of Brahman, has evolved into various sub-schools, each offering unique interpretations while addressing the core concepts of reality, self, and the nature of the Absolute Truth.

Sub Schools of Vedanta

Advaita:

• Meaning: Advaita means "not two" and is a philosophy that emphasizes the oneness of the Self (Atman) and the Whole (Brahman).
• Core Belief: Advaita teaches that the true Self, Atman, is identical to the ultimate Reality, Brahman. Liberation comes from understanding this unity. Knowledge of Brahman dispels Maya, the illusions that obscure the Real.
• Adi Shankara: The main figure in Advaita Vedanta, Adi Shankara, lived in the 8th century and organized the teachings of earlier philosophers. He is famous for his commentaries on ancient texts, including the Brahma Sutra.
• Brahmasutrabhasya: Shankara's most important commentary, explaining the Brahma Sutra, a key text in Vedanta.
• Commentaries: Shankara also wrote commentaries on ten principal Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.
• Mathas: He established four Mathas (monastic centers) in Dvaraka, Jagannatha Puri, Sringeri, and Badrikashrama.

Visishtadvaita:

• Definition: Visishtadvaita, meaning "qualified non-dualism," is a school of Vedanta that believes in a non-dualistic view of Brahman with inherent diversity.
• Core Belief: It posits that Brahman is the only reality but is characterized by multiplicity. This philosophy emphasizes unity in diversity.
• Ramanuja: The key proponent of Visishtadvaita, Ramanuja, interpreted the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita, and Brahma Sutras to show this unity amidst diversity.
• Differences with Sankara: While Sankara viewed Brahman as homogeneous and all differences as illusory, Ramanuja saw Brahman as containing pluralistic elements that manifest in a diverse world.
• Brahman: Sankara's Brahman is impersonal, whereas Ramanuja's Brahman is a Personal God.
• Key Principles: 1.Tattva: Understanding the three real entities: jiva (living souls), ajiva (insentient), and Ishvara (Vishnu-Narayana or Parabrahman, the creator and controller of the world). 2.Hita: Means of realization through bhakti (devotion) and prapatti (self-surrender). 3.Purushartha: Goal of moksha or liberation from bondage.

Dvaita:

• Definition: Dvaita, also known as Bhedavada and Tattvavada, is a school of Vedanta founded by Madhvacharya.
• Core Belief: Dvaita emphasizes a strict distinction between God (the Brahman or Paramatman) and individual souls (jivatman).
• God and Souls: Madhvacharya teaches that individual souls are not created by God but depend on Him for their existence.
• Two Realities: Dvaita posits two separate realities: 1. Vishnu or Brahman, the supreme Self and God, the absolute truth of the universe. 2. The dependent universe, which includes individual souls and matter, each with its own separate essence.
• Vishnu: To Madhvacharya, the Vedantin Brahman is Vishnu, and he established the Krishna temple at Udupi.
• Vaishnavism: Like Ramanuja, Madhvacharya embraced Vaishnavism, viewing God as personal and endowed with attributes.

Dvaitadvaita:

• Origin: Founded by Nimbarka, a Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region.
• Core Belief: According to Nimbarka, the categories of existence are three: chit (individual soul or jiva), achit (jagat or universe), and Isvara (God). Chit and achit are different from Isvara because they have attributes and capacities that are distinct from those of Isvara.
• Relationship with Isvara: Chit and achit depend on Isvara for their existence, but they are not different from Isvara because they cannot exist independently of Him. This means that while they are separate, their existence is contingent upon Isvara.
• Concept of Difference: Dvaitadvaita presents a unique understanding of difference and non-difference, where difference implies a separate but dependent existence, while non-difference signifies the impossibility of separate existence.

Shuddhadvaita:

• Definition: Shuddhadvaita is the "purely non-dual" philosophy introduced by Vallabhacharya, the founder of the Vallabha sampradaya or Pushtimarg, a Hindu Vaishnava tradition focused on Krishna worship.
• Core Belief: Vallabhacharya's philosophy emphasizes that God (Brahm) is pure and non-dualistic. Unlike Shankaracharya, he asserts that souls and Nature (the universe) are not illusions but are real entities.

Acintya Bheda Abheda:

• Origin: Believed to be taught by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), this philosophy distinguishes the Gaudiya tradition in Bengal from other Vaishnava sampradayas.
• Integration: Acintya Bheda Abheda combines elements of strict dualism (advocated by Madhvacharya) and qualified monism (promoted by Ramanuja), while rejecting the absolute monism of Adi Sankara.