Nationalism and the Peasant Movements | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• The Indian peasantry became impoverished due to the transformation of the agrarian structure resulting from colonial economic policies.
• Colonial economic policies led to the ruin of handicrafts, causing overcrowding of land.
• The new land revenue system and colonial administrative and judicial systems further exacerbated the situation.
• Peasants faced high rents, illegal levies, arbitrary evictions, and unpaid labor in Zamindari areas.
• In Ryotwari areas, the government imposed heavy land revenue directly on the farmers.
• Overburdened farmers, fearing the loss of their only source of livelihood, often turned to local moneylenders who exploited their difficulties by charging high-interest rates on loans.
• Farmers had to mortgage their land and cattle, and sometimes moneylenders seized these mortgaged belongings.
• Over time, many cultivators were reduced to the status of tenants-at-will, sharecroppers, and landless laborers.
• Peasants resisted exploitation and realized that their main enemy was the colonial state.
• In desperation, some peasants resorted to crime, including robbery, dacoity, and what is known as social banditry.
• Peasant discontent against established authority was common in the nineteenth century.
• However, in the twentieth century, the movements arising from this discontent were significantly influenced by and impacted the ongoing struggle for national freedom.
• The peasant movements of the 20th century were deeply intertwined with the national freedom struggle.

Peasant Movement in the 1920s

• Kisan Sabha Movement and Eka Movement
• Mappila Revolt
• Bardoli Satyagraha

The Kisan Sabha Movement

• After the annexation of Avadh in 1856 and the 1857 revolt, the Awadh Talukdars regained their lands. However, in the late 19th century, the taluqdars, or big landlords, strengthened their control over the agrarian society of the province.
• The majority of cultivators faced high rents, summary evictions (bedakhali), illegal levies, renewal fees, or nazrana. The impact of World War I led to increased prices for food and necessities, making the situation unbearable for tenants. This created a ripe environment for resistance.
• Thanks to the efforts of Home Rule activists, kisan sabhas were organized in Uttar Pradesh (UP). The UP Kisan Sabha was established in February 1918 by Gauri Shankar Mishra and Indra Narayan Dwivedi, with support from Madan Mohan Malaviya.
• By the end of 1919, grassroots peasant activity became evident through reports of nai-dhobi bandhs(a form of social boycott) in Pratapgarh district. Led by Baba Ramchandra, a sanyasi who had previously been an indentured laborer in Fiji, peasants organized these bandhs to deprive landlords of services like barbers and washermen.
• By June 1919, the UP Kisan Sabha had expanded to 450 branches, with leaders like Jhinguri Singh, Durgapal Singh, and Baba Ramchandra. In June 1920, Baba Ramchandra invited Jawaharlal Nehru to visit the villages, leading to Nehru developing close ties with the villagers during these visits.
• Mehta, the Deputy Commissioner of Pratapgarh, showed sympathy towards the kisans and promised to investigate their complaints.
• The Kisan Sabha in village Roor, Pratapgarh district, became active, with around one lakh tenants registering complaints by paying one anna each.
• Gauri Shankar was also active in Pratapgarh, working with Mehta on crucial tenant complaints like bedakhli(eviction) and nazrana(a type of fee).
• Mehta dropped a theft case and pressured landlords to change their practices, boosting the movement's confidence.
• In October 1920, the Awadh Kisan Sabha was formed in Pratapgarh due to differences within the nationalist ranks.
• The Sabha united various grassroots kisan sabhas that had emerged in Awadh, reflecting the split between Non-cooperators and those favoring constitutional agitation.
• The Awadh Kisan Sabha urged kisans to refuse to till bedakhali land, not to offer hali and begar(forms of unpaid labor), and to boycott those who did not comply.
• Disputes were to be resolved through Panchayats(local councils).
• In January 1921, peasant activities shifted from mass meetings and mobilization to looting bazaars, houses, granaries, and clashes with the police.
• The main areas of activity were Rai Bareilly, Faizabad, and Sultanpur.
• During the peak of peasant activity in early 1921 in Awadh, it was hard to tell the difference between a Non-cooperation meeting and a peasant rally.
• The movement declined due to government repression and the enactment of the Awadh Rent (Amendment) Act.

Eka Movement

In late 1921, peasants in northern districts of the United Provinces, such as Hardoi, Bahraich, and Sitapur, expressed discontent due to:

• High rents that were 50 percent higher than the recorded rates.
• Oppression by thikedars, who were responsible for revenue collection.
• Practice of share-rents.

The Eka Movement, also known as the Unity Movement, involved gatherings where peasants participated in a symbolic religious ritual, making vows to:

• Pay only the recorded rent, but on time.
• Not leave when evicted.
• Refuse to do forced labor.
• Give no help to criminals.
• Abide by Panchayat decisions.

The grassroots leadership of the Eka Movement included Madari Pasi, a low-caste leader, along with other low-caste leaders and some small Zamindars.

By March 1922, the movement faced severe repression from the authorities, leading to its end.

Mappila Revolt

Peasant Rebellion in Malabar District, Kerala (1921):

• In August 1921, a significant peasant rebellion occurred in the Malabar district of Kerala, led by Mappila (Muslim) tenants. Their grievances included lack of security of tenure, high rents, renewal fees, and other oppressive practices by landlords.
• This uprising was more intense and widespread compared to previous instances of Mappila resistance in the 19th century.

Origins of the Movement:

• The resistance was initially sparked by the Malabar District Congress Conference in April 1920, which supported the tenants’ cause and called for legislation to regulate landlord-tenant relations.
• This was a shift from the past when landlords had prevented the Congress from backing the tenants. Following this conference,tenants’ associations were formed in Kozhikode and other parts of the district.

Khilafat Movement Influence:

• The Khilafat Movement was also gaining momentum at this time, with Khilafat and tenants’ meetings becoming intertwined. The movement primarily drew its support from Mappila tenants, with Hindu participation being minimal, although some Hindu leaders were involved.
• Prominent leaders of the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement,including Gandhi, Shaukat Ali, and Maulana Azad, addressed Mappila meetings. After the arrest of national leaders, local Mappila leaders took over the movement's leadership.

Escalation and Communal Overtones:

• In August 1921, the arrest of a priest leader, Ali Musaliar, triggered widespread riots. Initially, the targets were symbols of British authority, such as courts, police stations, and unpopular landlords. However, after the British imposed martial law and intensified repression, the nature of the rebellion changed.
• Many Hindus were perceived by the Mappilas as collaborators with the authorities, leading to a shift from an anti-government and anti-landlord focus to a communal conflict.
• This communal aspect marked the separation of the Mappilas from the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation Movement. By December 1921, all resistance had ceased.

Impact on Mappila Participation in Politics:

• The militant Mappilas were left demoralized and subdued, leading to their diminished involvement in politics until India’s independence.
• The peasant movement in Kerala would later emerge under Left leadership in the subsequent years.

Peasant Movements in U.P. and Malabar

• The peasant movements in U.P. and Malabar were closely connected to national politics.
• In U.P., the movements were inspired by the Home Rule Leagues and later by the Non-Cooperation and Khilafat movements.
• In Avadh, during the early months of 1921, it was hard to tell the difference between a Non-Cooperation meeting and a peasant rally.
• A similar situation occurred in Malabar, where Khilafat and tenants’ meetings merged.
• However, when peasants resorted to violence, it created a rift between them and the national movement.
• Nationalist leaders, including Gandhiji, urged peasants to avoid violence and extreme actions like stopping rent payments to landlords.
• The national leadership aimed to protect peasants from the harsh consequences of violent uprisings.
• The government responded with heavy repression to suppress the movements in both U.P. and Malabar.
• Peasants sought an end to ejectments, illegal levies, and exorbitant rents, not the abolition of rent or landlordism.
• Extreme measures like refusing to pay rent could push small landlords closer to the government, jeopardizing their neutrality in the conflict between the government and the national movement.

Bardoli Satyagraha

• Bardoli Satyagraha: The Bardoli taluqa in Surat district experienced significant political activity after Gandhi entered the national political arena. The movement began in January 1926 when authorities decided to raise land revenue by 30 percent.

• Protests and Investigation: Congress leaders quickly protested against the revenue hike, leading to the formation of the Bardoli Inquiry Committee. This committee deemed the revenue increase unjustified.
• Leadership of Vallabhbhai Patel: In February 1926, Vallabhbhai Patel was invited to lead the movement. The women of Bardoli honored him with the title of "Sardar."
• Peasant Resolutions: Under Patel's leadership, the Bardoli peasants decided to refuse payment of the revised land revenue assessment until the government appointed an independent tribunal or accepted the current amount as full payment.
• Organizational Efforts: Patel established 13 chhavanis(workers’ camps) in the taluqa to organize the movement. The Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika was published to mobilize public opinion, and an intelligence wing was created to ensure compliance with the movement’s resolutions.
• Social Boycott and Women Mobilization: Those opposing the movement faced social boycotts. Special emphasis was placed on mobilizing women. K.M. Munshi and Lalji Naranji resigned from the Bombay Legislative Council in support of the movement.
• Escalation and Government Response: By August 1928, tensions escalated in the area. There were potential strikes in Bombay, and Gandhi arrived in Bardoli to support the movement. The government sought a way to withdraw gracefully.
• Settlement: The government stipulated that the enhanced rent be paid by all occupants before a committee reviewed the case. The committee ultimately found the revenue hike unjustified and recommended a 6.03 percent increase only.

Peasant Movements in 1930’s

Influence of the Great Depression and Civil Disobedience Movement on Peasant Awakening in the 1930s:

• The Great Depression in industrialized countries and the Civil Disobedience Movement(CDM) influenced the peasant awakening in the 1930s.
• During the CDM, various movements emerged, including:
  • No Revenue Campaign in Uttar Pradesh (UP), which later transformed into a No Rent movement.
  • Opposition to Chowkidari Tax in Bihar and Bengal, where villagers protested against paying for the upkeep of their oppressors.
  • No Tax Campaign in Surat and Kheda.
  • No Revenue Campaign in Punjab.
  • Forest Satyagraha in Maharashtra, Bihar, and Central Provinces, defying forest laws.
  • Anti-Zamindari Struggle in Andhra.
• After the decline of the active phase of the movement in 1932, new entrants to active politics sought outlets for their energies by organizing peasants.
• The CDM also attracted leftist leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose.
• In 1934, the Congress Socialist Party(CSP) was formed, strengthening the consolidation of leftist forces. The CSP provided an opportunity for communists to work openly and legally.
• The consolidation of the leftist forces spurred the formation of an all-India body to coordinate the kisan movement, led by figures like N.G. Ranga.
• This effort culminated in the establishment of the All-India Kisan Congress in Lucknow in April 1936, later renamed the All India Kisan Conference. The first session was attended by Jawaharlal Nehru.
• The formation of Congress ministries in 1937 marked a new phase of peasant movements, characterized by increased civil liberties and the introduction of various agrarian relief legislations.

The All India Kisan Sabha

• The Kisan Sabha movement began in Bihar under the guidance of Sahajanand Saraswati.
• In 1929, Saraswati established the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) to address peasant grievances related to zamindari attacks on occupancy rights.
• The movement gradually intensified and spread across India.
• The formation of the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) in 1934 facilitated collaboration between Communists and the Indian National Congress.
• In April 1935, peasant leaders N. G. Ranga and E. M. S. Namboodiripad proposed the formation of an all-India farmers body.
• The All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) was established on April 11, 1936, during the Lucknow session of the Indian National Congress.
• Swami Sahajanand Saraswati was elected as the president, and N. G. Ranga as the general secretary.
• Prominent figures involved included Karyanand Sharma, Yamuna Karjee, Yadunandan Sharma, Rahul Sankrityayan, P. Sundarayya, Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev, and Bankim Mukerji.
• A Kisan Manifesto was drafted and presented to the Congress Working Committee for inclusion in its 1937 election manifesto.
• At the Faizpur session in Maharashtra, the Kisan Manifesto significantly influenced the agrarian program adopted by the Congress.
• The Kisan Manifesto, released in August 1936, called for the abolition of the zamindari system and cancellation of rural debts.
• The period from 1937 to 1939 was a peak time for peasant movements under Congress rule in various provinces.
• The establishment of Congress Ministries in early 1937 marked a new phase for the peasant movement.
• The political climate changed with increased civil liberties and a sense of freedom under local governance.
• Different Ministries introduced various agrarian legislations, such as debt relief and security of tenure for tenants, stimulating peasant mobilization.
• Mobilization was mainly through kisan conferences at different levels to address peasant demands and resolutions.
• In October 1937, the All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) adopted the red flag as its symbol, marking a shift in its identity.
• Following this, AIKS leaders grew increasingly distant from the Indian National Congress (Congress) and often clashed with Congress-led governments in Bihar and the United Province over agrarian issues.
• During the 1937 elections, a temporary alliance between socialists and right-wing leaders helped Congress secure a significant victory. However, after forming the government, the right-wing factions regained power and attempted to impede zamindari reforms.
• The issue of Bakasht land, where permanent tenancies were altered to short-term tenancies, became a focal point of contention. Conservative Congress leaders renegotiated their agreements with landlords, leading to a weakened tenancy legislation due to landlord influence.
• In response to the diluted Congress tenancy legislation, peasants organized a militant movement in 1938-1939 under the leadership of Kisan Sabha, demanding the restoration of Bakasht land.
• At its 1938 annual conference, AIKS rejected the Gandhian principle of class collaboration and set agrarian revolution as its ultimate objective, signaling a shift towards more radical goals.
• In response to the unrest, zamindars pressured the Congress government to exert its coercive power. The Bihar Congress attempted to distance itself from the Kisan Sabha amidst these tensions.
• In Uttar Pradesh (UP), the Kisan Sabha was disappointed with the Congress government for weakening the 1938 tenancy law, which aimed to cut rents by half. Kisan Sabha leaders like Narendra Dev and Mohanlal Gautam organized peasant protests.
• In Orissa, Kisan leaders were upset when the Congress government allowed pro-landlord changes to the proposed tenancy law. Even the weakened law was delayed by the governor until a large Kisan Day Rally on September 1, 1938, took place.
• During the Haripura Session of the Congress in February 1938, a resolution was passed prohibiting Congress members from joining Kisan Sabhas. However, the enforcement of this resolution was left to the provincial bodies.
• By May 1942, the Communist Party of India, which was legalized by the government in July 1942, had taken control of the Agricultural Workers' Union (AIKS) across India, including Bengal, where its membership grew significantly. The AIKS adopted the Communist Party's People's War line and distanced itself from the Quit India Movement that began in August 1942. This shift, however, led to a loss of popular support, as many members defied party orders and joined the movement. Prominent members such as Ranga, Indulal Yagnik, and Saraswati left the organization, which increasingly struggled to connect with peasants without the earlier pro-British and pro-war stance, and shifted towards a more pro-nationalist agenda.

Peasant Activity in Provinces

Kerala:

• Congress Socialist Party played a key role in mobilizing peasants in the Malabar region.
• Formation of numerous Karshak Sanghams (peasants' organizations) was a significant outcome.
• Movement focused on demands such as the abolition of feudal levies (akramapirivukal), renewal fees (policceluthu), and advance rent.
• Peasants sought to halt tenant evictions by landlords.
• Demands included reductions in tax, rent, and debt burdens.
• Fair measurement of grain rent was also a key demand.
• Movement aimed to end corrupt practices by landlords' managers.
• Mobilization methods included forming village units of Karshaka Sanghams.
• Holding conferences and meetings were essential for mobilization.
• A popular method was organizing jathas, large groups of peasants marching to the homes of big landlords.
• Jathas presented demands, especially the abolition of feudal levies like vasi and nuri.
• In 1938, a significant campaign aimed at amending the Malabar Tenancy Act of 1929 was launched.
• November 6th was observed as Malabar Tenancy Act Amendment Day.
• Meetings across the district passed resolutions urging the amendment.

Andhra:

• The region saw a decline in the prestige of Zamindars following their defeat by Congress in the 1937 elections.
• Anti-zamindar movements were active, with various provincial ryot associations engaged in struggles against the Government and Zamindars.
• N.G. Ranga, a Congress Socialist Party activist, founded the India Peasants’ Institute in the Guntur district in 1933.
• He organized numerous peasant marches and advocated for the abolition of Zamindari.
• Ranga and EMS Namboodiripad attempted to expand the peasant movement beyond Madras Presidency in 1935.
• They initiated discussions for a South Indian Federation of Peasants and an all-India Peasant body.
• After 1936, Congress socialists began organizing peasants through summer schools of economics and politics.
• Notable leaders included P.C. Joshi, Ajoy Ghosh, and R.D. Bhardwaj.
• In 1938, the Provincial Kisan Conference organized a significant march covering over 1,500 miles.
• More than 2,000 kisans participated, holding numerous meetings and collecting over 1,100 petitions.
• These petitions were presented to the Madras provincial legislature on March 27, 1938.
• A primary demand was debt relief, which was later included in legislation by the Congress Ministry.
• Summer Schools of Economics and Politics for peasant activists were another important aspect of the movement in Andhra.
• Celebrating various kisan days and popularizing peasant songs also served as forms of mobilization.

Bihar:

• The Kisan Sabha movement in Bihar was initiated by Sahjanand Saraswati who established the Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha (BPKS) in 1929. He was joined by leaders like Karyanand Sharma, Yadunandan Sharma, Rahul Sankritayan, Panchanan Sharma, and Jamun Karjiti.
• BPKS utilized meetings, conferences, rallies, and mass demonstrations to promote its agenda, including a significant demonstration of one lakh peasants in Patna in 1938. While it was primarily supported by rich occupancy tenants, it also drew in middle and poor peasants.
• Initially, BPKS aimed to foster class harmony between landlords and tenants to support the national movement. However, by 1935, under Socialist influence, it adopted the abolition of Zamindari as a key objective.
• In 1935, the Provincial Kisan Conference embraced the Zamindari abolition call along with other demands such as stopping illegal levies, preventing tenant evictions, and returning bakasht lands.
• BPKS clashed with the Congress over the bakasht land issue, leading to its decline by August 1939 due to concessions, legislation, and the arrest of about 600 activists. The movement saw a resurgence in 1945 and persisted until the abolition of zamindari.

Punjab:

• Earlier peasant mobilization in Punjab was led by Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha, Kirti Kisan Party, Congress, and Akalis. The formation of the Punjab Kisan Committee in 1937 provided new direction to Congress and Akali activists.
• The mobilization involved kisan workers touring villages to recruit members for Kisan Sabha and Congress, organizing meetings, and rallying people for various conferences. Key demands included tax reductions and a moratorium on debts, primarily targeting landlords in western Punjab.
• Major peasant activity took place in Jullundur, Amritsar, Hoshiarpur, Lyallpur, and Shekhupura. However,Muslim tenants in west Punjab and Hindu peasants in southeastern Punjab(now Haryana) were largely unaffected.
• Peasant unrest also emerged in the princely states of Punjab, particularly in Patiala, where muzaras (tenants) demanded the return of land seized by a landlord-official combine. Led by Left leaders like Bhagwan Singh Longowalia and Jagir Singh Joga, the struggle continued until 1953, culminating in legislation that allowed tenants to become landowners.

Other parts of India

Peasant activity was also organised in Bengal (Burdwan and 24 Parganas), Assam (Surma Valley), Orissa, Central Provinces and NWFP.

• Bengal: Under the leadership of Bankim Mukherjee, peasants in Burdwan protested against the increased canal tax on the Damodar Canal and achieved significant concessions. In 24-Parganas, peasants marched to Calcutta in 1938 to press their demands.
• Assam (Surma Valley): A no-rent struggle lasted for six months against zamindari oppression, led by Karuna Sindhu, who campaigned for changes in tenancy law.
• Orissa: The Utkal Provincial Kisan Sabha, established by Malati Chowdhary and others in 1935, successfully got the kisan manifesto accepted by the Provincial Congress, leading to significant agrarian reforms. The Sabha's first conference called for the abolition of Zamindari.
• NWFP (Ghalla Dhir State): Peasants protested against evictions and feudal exactions by their Nawab.
• Gujarat: The main demand was for the abolition of the Hali system (bonded labour), which was significantly achieved.
• Central Provinces: The Kisan Sabha led a march to Nagpur demanding the abolition of the malguzari system, tax concessions, and a moratorium on debts.

During The War:

• The growing peasant awakening was halted by the outbreak of World War II, which led to the resignation of Congress Ministries and severe repression against left-wing and kisan Sabha leaders due to their strong anti-war stance.
• Following Hitler’s attack on the Soviet Union, conflicts arose between Communist and non-Communist members of the kisan Sabha. These conflicts intensified during the Quit India Movement, where Congress Socialist members took a leading role. The Communist Party of India (CPI), due to its pro-war People’s War line, instructed its members to stay away. Although local workers participated in the Quit India Movement, the party line deepened the rift in the kisan Sabha, leading to a split in 1943. During this time, three major leaders of the All India Kisan Sabha N.G. Ranga, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, and Indulal Yagnik left the organization.
• Despite these challenges, the kisan Sabha played a crucial role in various relief efforts during the war years, such as during the Bengal Famine of 1943, and helped alleviate the hardships caused by shortages of essential goods and rationing. It also continued its organizational work, although hampered by its unpopular pro-war position, which alienated it from certain sections of the peasantry.

Post-War Phase:

• Many struggles that had been left off in 1939 were renewed. The demand for zamindari abolition was pressed with a greater sense of urgency.
• The peasants of Punnapra-Vayalar in Travancore fought bloody battles with the administration.

Tebhaga Movement:

• The Tebhaga movement was a campaign initiated in Bengal by the Kisan Sabha during 1946-1947.
• At that time, sharecropping peasants, essentially tenants, were required to give half of their harvest to the landowners.
• The Tebhaga movement aimed to reduce this share to one third.
• In September 1946, the Bengal Provincial Kisan Sabha called for the implementation of the Floud Commission's recommendations.
• The Sabha advocated for a tebhaga share for the bargadars instead of the one-half share.
• The bargadars worked on lands rented from the jotedars (landlords).
• Communist cadres, including urban student militias, organized the bargadars in the countryside.
• The central slogan was "nij khamare dhan tolo," meaning sharecroppers should take the paddy to their own threshing floor instead of the jotedar's house.
• North Bengal, particularly among the Rajbanshis—a low caste of tribal origin—was the storm center of the movement.
• Muslims also participated in large numbers.
• In response to the agitations, the Muslim League ministry, led by Suharawardy, introduced the Bargadari Bill.
• The Bill limited the landlord's share of the harvest to one third.
• However, the law was not fully implemented.
• The movement dissipated due to the Muslim League ministry's Bargadari Bill and intensified repression.
• The movement's prospects ended due to the popularity of the Hindu Mahasabha's agitation for a separate Bengal and renewed riots in Calcutta.
• The Muslim League Ministry did not pursue the bill in the Assembly.
• It was only in 1950 that the Congress Ministry passed a Bargadari Bill that incorporated the movement's demands.

Telangana Movement:

• This was the largest peasant guerrilla war in modern Indian history.
• The princely state of Hyderabad, ruled by the Asaf Jah Nizams, experienced a mix of religious and linguistic domination.
• A small Urdu-speaking Muslim elite governed over mainly Hindu-Telugu, Marathi, and Kannada-speaking groups.
• There was a complete absence of political and civil liberties, along with extreme exploitation by deshmukhs, jagirdars, and doras (landlords) through forced labor (vethi) and illegal taxes.
• During the conflict, communist-led guerrillas established a strong presence in Telangana villages through the Andhra Mahasabha, addressing local issues like wartime exactions, rationing abuses, high rents, and vethi.
• The uprising began in July 1946 after a deshmukh's thug killed a village militant in Jangaon taluq, Nalgonda.
• It quickly spread to Warrangal and Khammam.
• Peasants organized into village sanghams, using lathis, stone slings, and chili powder for attacks.
• They faced severe repression.
• The movement peaked between August 1947 and September 1948, with peasants defeating the Razaqars, the Nizam's stormtroopers.
• After Indian security forces took control of Hyderabad, the movement gradually diminished.

 Positive achievements of the Telangana movement: 

• In villages under guerrilla control, practices like vethi (a form of forced labor) and forced labor itself were abolished.
• Agricultural wages saw an increase.
• Land that had been seized illegally was returned to its rightful owners.
• Efforts were made to establish land ceilings and redistribute land.
• Improvements were initiated in irrigation and measures were taken to combat cholera.
• There was a noticeable improvement in the condition of women.
• The autocratic and feudal regime of India's largest princely state was challenged, paving the way for the creation of Andhra Pradesh based on linguistic lines and fulfilling another goal of the national movement in the region.

Key Points on Peasant Movements and Agrarian Structure Transformation:

• The struggles aimed at alleviating oppressive aspects of the agrarian structure rather than overthrowing it, yet they weakened the power of the landed classes and set the stage for structural transformation.
• Even when peasant movements did not achieve immediate successes, they created the climate for post-Independence agrarian reforms. For instance, the abolition of Zamindari was influenced by the popularization of the demand by the kisan sabha.
• The forms of struggle and mobilization used by peasant movements in different areas were similar in nature and demands.
• Violent clashes were the exception.
• The relationship between the peasant movement and the national movement was integral and vital. The kisan movement was based on the ideology of nationalism and sought national freedom while organizing the peasantry on class lines.
• In some regions, such as Bihar, differences arose between Congress members and the kisan sabha, leading to potential confrontations. However, these differences were usually contained before 1942, and the kisan movement aligned closely with the national movement.
• Demands of peasants included:Reduction in taxes, abolition of illegal cess or feudal levies,ending oppression by Zamindars, reduction of debts, restoration of illegally seized lands, and security of tenure for tenants.
• Except in regions like Andhra and Gujarat, the demands of agricultural laborers were not significantly part of the movement.
• These movements weakened the power of the landed class and contributed to the transformation of the agrarian structure.
• The movements were rooted in the ideology of nationalism, and their nature was similar across diverse areas.