Hindi and Religious Literatures in Mughal India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Development of Hindi from Dialects:

• Hindi evolved from various dialects spoken in northern India, including Brajbhasa, Awadhi, Rajasthani, Maithili, Bhojpuri, and Malwi.
• Khari Boli, a mixed form of Hindi, emerged in the 15th-16th centuries.

Impact of the Mughal Period on Hindi Literature:

• During the Mughal era, Akbar's policy of toleration fostered the growth of Hindi literature.
• Many writers contributed to the development of Hindi literature during this time.

Dominant Themes in Mughal-era Hindi Poetry:

• The main form of Hindi poetry that emerged during the Mughal period was devotional (Bhakti) poetry.
• Hindi literature thrived under the influence of the Bhakti movement.

Kabir

• He composed Dohas and Sakhis that are still widely appreciated today.
• These verses encapsulate a vast amount of worldly wisdom in a concise format.

Goswami Tulsidas (born 1523)

Ramcharita-Mansa:

• Started writing in 1574.
• Tells the story of Rama.
• Popular because it was in a language similar to Tulsidas' native Awadhi dialect.

Vinaya-Patrika:

• A prayer book that reflects his philosophy.

Influence on Other Writers:

• Inspired writers like Agradas and Nabhajidas.
• They wrote Bhakta, a famous account of Vaisnava saints.

Surdas (1503-1563)

Sur Das: The Blind Poet from Agra:

• Sur Das was a blind poet from Agra, known for his devotional songs and poetry.
• He was part of the court of Emperor Akbar, as mentioned by Abul Fazal, who listed him among 36 singers and musicians.
• Sur Das's famous work is the "Sur Sagar."
• In "Sur Sagar," he describes the childhood sports of Lord Krishna, as well as the beauty of Krishna and his beloved Radha.
• He wrote in Braj Bhasha, a dialect of Hindi, and was known for his vivid imagery.

Mirabai

• The poet addressed Krishna as a lover and depicted the ultimate surrender of a devotee ('bhakta') to the Supreme Being.
• She wrote in the Marwari dialect of Rajasthan, which was later transformed into Brajbhasha.
• The Awadhi dialect of Hindi was enriched by several Sufi poets, including Maulana Daud, the author of Chandayan, and Kutaban, the composer of Mrigavati.
• Malik Muhammad Jayasi composed Padmavat between A.D. 1520-1540, showcasing the excellence of the Awadhi language. This epic narrates the story of Padmani, the Queen of Mewar.
• Osman Shaikh Nabi, Kasim, and Mir Muhammad were notable Muslim poets of the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Literature in Brajbhasha flourished under the patronage of Akbar, with Tansen and Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan composing lyrics on the 'Leela' of Krishna.
• Abdur Rahim Khan Khanan is famous for his work Rahim Satsai, a collection of Dohas.

Other Hindi literatures in Mughal India

• Ras Khan, a Muslim disciple of Lord Krishna, was a renowned Hindi writer. He penned his famous book ‘Prem Vatika’ around 1614.
• Bihari Lal Chaube authored the famous “Bihari Satsai,” patronized by Raja Jai Singh. His Dohas and Sorthas are well-known.
• Sundra, a Brahman from Gwalior, wrote “Sundra Shringar” in 1631 and the ‘Simhasan Battisi’ in Braja language. He was honored with the titles of Kaviraya and Mahakaviraya by Shah Jahan.
• Nabhaji wrote the famous Bhaktmal, which details important devotees and saints who followed Lord Krishna and Rama.
• Nand Das composed Raspanchadhyayi, Vithal Katha, and Chaurasi Vaishnava Ki Varta.
• Bhagwan Das and Man Singh were Hindi poets, with Karan and Narhari Sahai serving as court poets of Akbar. Narhari Sahai was given the title of Maha Patra.
• Khumbhan Das was another notable writer during Akbar's reign.Keshva Das, who died around 1617 A.D., wrote Kavi Priya, Ram Chandrika, and Rasik Priya.
• Bhushan, a Hindi poet supported by Shivaji and Chhatrasal Bundela, wrote Shivaraja Bhushana, Chhatrasal Dashaka, and Shivavati.
• Hindi literature began to decline during the time of Aurangzeb, marking the end of the era of great Hindi poets.

Sanskrit

In North India

• Sanskrit lost its status as the primary language of the Imperial court during this period. Despite Mughal Emperor Akbar and princes like Dara supporting Sanskrit scholars, it never regained its former prominence in Northern India.
• The Mughals projected a multicultural and multilingual imperial image, often referring to Sanskrit texts.
• Although the period did not see significant original work in Sanskrit, the volume of Sanskrit works produced was notable.
• Most of these works were created in South and East India under the patronage of local rulers, with a few produced by brahmanas in the emperors' translation departments.
• Jain and Brahman Sanskrit scholars frequently visited the courts of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan.
• Some were directly invited to the royal court, while others gained access through regional or subimperial patrons.
• Sanskrit authors created numerous works under imperial sponsorship and were involved in various aspects of court life.
• They served as intellectual informants, astrologers, religious guides, translators, and political negotiators for the Mughals.
• The Mughals sought information from Sanskrit intellectuals about Indian practices and ideas that could support their imperial agenda, including the belief that Akbar was an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu.
• Historian Bada’uni noted that Brahmans presented Sanskrit texts predicting Akbar’s rise to power as Vishnu’s avatar.

Sanskrit during Akbar

Akbar's Patronage and Influence on Sanskrit Literature:

• Akbar supported scholars like Bhanuchandra and Siddha Chandra, who wrote a commentary on Bana's Kadambari.
• Jains introduced Akbar to certain Sanskrit-based practices, such as sun veneration, which had significant political implications.
• Bhanuchandra, a Tapa Gaccha ascetic sent by Hiravijaya to the Mughal court in Lahore in 1587, taught Akbar to recite the Suryasahasranama(Thousand Names of the Sun).
• Siddhicandra, Bhanucandra's Sanskrit biographer, narrates this story and later depicts Akbar as being devoted to honoring the sun above other religious activities.
• Bihari Krishnadas composed Parri Prakaska, providing Sanskrit equivalents for many Persian terms.
• Another notable work from Akbar's era is Ramavinoda, written by Ramachandra, an official in Akbar's court.

Translation works

Akbar's Promotion of Translations:

• Akbar sponsored the translation of the Sanskrit epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, into Persian.
• The story of Nala and Damayanti was translated into Persian by Faizi and titled Maanavi Nal-o Daman.
• Technical works like Bhaskara’s Lilavati, Panchatantra, and Simhosanad vatrinshatika were also translated into Persian during Akbar’s reign.
• These translations were collaborative efforts involving Mughal Muslim scholars and Brahmans. Often, the translators did not know both Sanskrit and Persian. The Brahmans would read the Sanskrit text and translate it verbally into Hindi, which the Mughal translators would then convert into Persian.
• In his bilingual grammar from the late sixteenth century, Krishnadasa praised Akbar as Vishnu embodied.
• Many other Sanskrit works were compiled or translated during Akbar's time, either under his orders or those of his nobles.

Sanskrit during Jahangir

During Jahangir's reign, a significant number of Sanskrit texts were translated into Persian.

• New literary works were also created during this period, with notable examples being Kirtisamullasa and Danmhahcharitra by the poet Rudra.
• Jagannath, a distinguished Sanskrit scholar, thrived at Jahangir's court, where he received royal support.
• He was honored with the title 'Panditraj' and produced remarkable Sanskrit works such as Manoramalcucamardana(focused on grammar), Chitramimansakhandana(centered on rhetoric), and Asafvijaya(a eulogy dedicated to Asaf Khan).

Sanskrit during Shah Jahan

During Shah Jahan's era, Sanskrit scholars received patronage.

• Jagannatha Panditaraja and Kavindracarya Sarasvati were sponsored by Shah Jahan.
• These scholars are noted in Persian chronicles from Shah Jahan's time.
• Other Sanskrit scholars at Shah Jahan's court included Vanshidhar Misra and Harinarayana Misra.
• Prominent Sanskrit works from this period include:
• Siddhan Uuarvabhauma by Munishvar
• Kavyaviruiaprabodha by Bhagavati Svamin
• Parri Prakaaka by Vedangaraja
• Abdul Hamid Lahauri, a historian of Shah Jahan, mentioned various other Sanskrit poets who were also supported by the Emperor.

Sanskrit during Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb and Sanskrit Learning:

• Aurangzeb, the next ruler, was orthodox and did not support Sanskrit learning.
• He stopped providing patronage to Sanskrit scholars.
• Despite this, Sanskrit learning continued to thrive.
• Notable works compiled during Aurangzeb's reign include:
• Raghunath’s Muhurtamala
• Chaturbhuja’s Ratakalpadruma

Sanskrit in South

Influence of Madhavacarya and Sayanacarya:

• Madhavacarya and Sayanacarya inspired the kings of Vijayanagar to support Sanskrit literature.

Post-1565 Patronage:

• After 1565, the Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties, Nayakas of Tanjore, and chiefs of Travancore and Cochin continued to patronize Sanskrit.

Genres of Sanskrit Literature:

• Various genres such as Mahakavyas, Slesh Kavyas, Champu Kavyas, Natakas, and historical Kavyas thrived.

Raghunatha Nayaka's Contributions:

• Raghunatha Nayaka of Tanjore and his court poets significantly contributed to Mahakavya.

Srinivasa Dikshit:

• Srinivasa Dikshit, a minister of the Nayakas of Gingee, was a prolific writer, composing eighteen dramas and sixty kavyas.

Govinda Dikshita:

• Flourished at the Nayak Court of Tanjore, known for works like Sahitya Sudha and Sangitsudhanidhi.

Appaya Dikshita:

• A Sanskrit scholar patronized by Nayak chiefs of Vellore, wrote over 100 books.

Niliknatha Dikshit:

• A minister of Tirumalanayaka of Madura, known for important Mahakavyas, particularly on Siva-leela and Bhagirath's penance.

Chakrakavi:

• A notable Sanskrit poet, author of Janaki Parinaya and Narayana Bhattatire.

Manadeva Zamouri:

• King of Kozhikode, made significant contributions in various fields, excelling in Mahakavyas and regarded as one of the greatest poets of Kerala.

Historical Kavyas and Natakas:

• Provide insights into the social perceptions of Sanskrit writers during this period.

Tirumalamba's Contribution:

• The first historical Kavyas were composed by Tirumalamba, who is noted for her work Varadgumbika parinaya, which holds historical significance and is considered a beautiful Champu.

Sahityasudha and Raghunathabhyudaya:

• These works shed light on the heroic exploits of Raghumalla Nayaka of Tanjore, referencing numerous historical events.

Mahakavyas on Shivaji:

• Many Mahakavyas based on the life of Shivaji and his son are crucial sources for Maratha history.

Anubharata or Sivabharata:

• This Kavya, significant in the context of Shivaji's life, was initiated by Kavindra Paramananda and continued by his son Devadatta and grandson Govinda, incorporating the life of Shambhuji.

Tarkasongraha:

• A popular manual on logic written in South India by Annambhatta, dating around 1625.

Contributions to Dwaita Philosophy:

• Viyasaraya(d. 1539) and Viyayindra(1576) made notable contributions to Dwaita philosophy.

Dalpati's Nririmhaprarada:

• Dalpati(1490-1533), an officer at the Nizam Shahi court of Ahmednagar, authored Nririmhaprarada, an extensive work on religious and civil laws.

Muslim Rulers in Historical Kavyas:

• Some Muslim rulers were depicted as heroes in historical Kavyas by court poets, such as Pandita Jagannath and Dara Shukoh.

Sanskrit Literature's Decline:

• Sanskrit literature faced decline as writers focused on commentaries instead of original works, with only a few scientific texts, music, and philosophy works emerging.

Rise of Vernacular Literature:

• The rise of vernacular literature, influenced by the earlier Bhakti movement, led regional poets to compose elegant lyrics in closer-to-spoken languages.

Popularity of Vernacular Works:

• Vernacular literary works gained popularity for their immediate response from both common people and the aristocracy.