Classical Music in Mughal India | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

Hindu-Muslim Cooperation in Music:

• Indian Music in Sultanat: Indian music gained prominence in the courts of the Sultanat during the 14th century, with even orthodox rulers like Firuz Tughlaq supporting it.
• Bhakti Movement Influence: The bhakti movement significantly inspired and sustained the development of music in North India. Many writings of bhakti saints were set to various ragas and surs.
• Saint Poets' Compositions: The musical compositions of 16th and 17th-century saint poets were typically set to music.
• Swami Haridas in Vrindavan: Swami Haridas played a crucial role in promoting music in Vrindavan. It is believed that Akbar once disguised himself to listen to Haridas's music. Haridas is also regarded as the teacher of the famous musician Tansen, who later served in Akbar's court.
• Centers of Musical Study: Musical study and practice centers were primarily located in regional kingdoms, where rulers during the 15th and 16th centuries were strong patrons of music.
• Raja Man Singh of Gwalior: Raja Man Singh (1486-1517) was not only a skilled musician but also a patron of musicians. He is credited with creating new melodies, compiled in a work called Man Kautuhal. He significantly contributed to the growth and perfection of Dhrupad, a North Indian music style.
• Patronage at Courts, Temples, and Sufi Gatherings: Patronage for music was extended at courts, temples, and Sufi gatherings.
• Adali of Delhi: Among the rulers of Delhi, Adali, the son of Islam Shah Sur, was a notable patron of music and an accomplished pakhawaj player.

Under Akbar

• Like Babur, Akbar had a deep appreciation for music.

Ain-i-Akbari and Musicians at Akbar's Court:

• According to the Ain-i-Akbari, written by Abu'l-Fazl, there were 36 high-grade musicians in Akbar's court.
• Two notable bin players from Gwalior mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbari are Shihab Khan and Purbin Khan.

Akbar's Musical Skills:

• Akbar was not only a learned musician but also studied Hindu vocalization under Lal Kalawant, who taught him the nuances of the Hindi language in music.
• Abu'l-Fazl noted that Akbar had an exceptional understanding of music, surpassing that of trained musicians. He was especially skilled at playing the nagara.

Tansen and Akbar's Court:

• Akbar's passion for music led him to recruit Tansen, a renowned musician, from Man Singh.
• Tansen, famous for his contributions to North Indian music, is credited with the invention of Raga Deepak and the introduction of various ragas such as Miyan ki Malhar, Miyan ki Todi, Miyan ki Mand, Miyan ka Sarang, and Darbari.
• He also created major ragas like Darbari Kanada, Darbari Todi, and Rageshwari.
• Tansen authored important music documents like Sangeeta Sara and Rajmala.

Other Notable Musicians:

• Baba Ram Das, another musician at Akbar's court, was associated with Bairam Khan.
• Sur Das, the son of the renowned singer Ram Das and a great Hindi poet, was also a musician in Akbar's court.

Musical Innovations and Blending of Cultures:

• Akbar's support for music led to advancements in both instrumental and vocal arts, where Hindu and Muslim music traditions blended.
• In the fort at Fatehpur Sikri, a pond with a small island was constructed for musical performances.

Ali Khan Karori:

• Ali Khan Karori was a rare musician, along with Tansen, to be the subject of an individual portrait. Tansen is celebrated as a significant figure in Indian music history.

Tansen

• Born as Ramtanu Pandey in 1493, Mian Tansen was a renowned composer, musician, and vocalist in Hindustani classical music.
• He was instrumental in popularizing and improving the plucked rabab, an instrument of Central Asian origin.
• Tansen was initially mentored by Swami Haridas, a legendary composer from Vrindavan, who specialized in the Dhrupad style of singing.
• Recognizing his talent, the ruler of Gwalior bestowed upon Tansen the honorific title ‘Tansen’.
• From Haridas, Tansen not only learned the Dhrupad style but also developed an interest in composing music in local languages like Brajbhasha and Hindi.
• He became part of the Mughal Emperor Akbar's court as one of the Navaratnas (nine jewels) and was given the title ‘Mian,’ meaning learned man.
• Tansen composed numerous songs in Hindi and created new ragas, many of which are still sung today.
• He was known for his stately Dhrupad style of singing, which he had adopted from Gwalior.
• Tansen's presence in Akbar's court was significant for establishing the empire's auditory presence among the populace through Naubat or ritual performance.
• At Fatehpur Sikri, a fort associated with Tansen’s tenure, musical performances were held near a pond called Anup Talao.
• His legendary musical prowess is comparable to that of Sufi composer Amir Khusro and Bhakti tradition composers like Swami Haridas.
• Tansen’s raga compositions, often prefaced with ‘Mian ki,’ such as Mian ki Todi and Mian ki Malhar, became integral to Hindustani music.
• He authored important musical documents like Sangeeta Sara and Rajmala, contributing to the Hindustani classical ethos.
• Tansen’s lineage influenced almost all gharanas of Hindustani classical music, with some tracing back to Amir Khusro.
• The Dhrupad style, formalized by Tansen and others, laid the foundation for future musical practices.
• Tansen’s innovations also led to the fusion of the rabab with the veena, resulting in the creation of the sarod, a popular instrument today.
• Despite claims, the lineage of qawwals is often incorrectly attributed to Mian Tansen.
• Tansen was buried in the mausoleum complex of his Sufi master, Shaikh Muhammad Ghaus, in Gwalior. Legend has it that his son, Bilas Khan, composed the raga Bilaskhani Todi in his grief.

Under Shahjahan

• Aurangzeb was a supporter of music and was known for his singing abilities.
• It is said that his melodious voice could move Sufi saints to tears.
• Aurangzeb was also skilled at playing the veena and promoted music during the early years of his reign.
• However, as time went on, his increasing puritanism and misguided sense of frugality led him to banish singers from his court.
• Despite this, instrumental music continued to be accepted.
• Even when Aurangzeb dismissed protesting musicians, his reign was marked by the production of numerous books on music.
• The most notable of these was "Tuhfat-ul-Hind," written for Aurangzeb's grandson, Jahandar Shah.
• Members of the royal family, including women in the harem and many nobles, continued to support and enjoy music.

In 18th Century

• In the 18th century, North Indian music flourished under the patronage of Mughal Emperor  Muhammad Shah.
• Sadarang and Adarang, his renowned singers, were experts in Dhrupad but also trained many in the Khayal style, known for its lyrical and erotic themes, boosting its popularity.
• Muhammad Shah himself composed Khayals using the pen-name  Rangila Piya.
• Courtesans gained fame for their music and dance during this period.
• New musical forms such as  Tarana, Dadra, and Ghazal emerged.
• The  tabla and  sitar gained popularity.
• Folk forms like  Thumri, using folk scales, and  Tappa, derived from the songs of  Punjab camel drivers, were incorporated into courtly music.
• While later Mughal kings continued to support music, it gradually declined with the Mughal Empire. However, the  composite culture developed during this time is still evident in Indian classical music, particularly  Hindustani music.

In 19th Century

• In the early 19th century, British colonizers and wealthy Anglo-Indians began commissioning local artists to create portraits in a Western style. This practice led to the emergence of the "Company School" movement.
• Subjects of these paintings often included musicians and courtesans of the time.
• One notable figure in Delhi was Anglo-Indian Colonel James Skinner, who was known for his influence and kept musicians and dancers in his household.
• Colonel Skinner commissioned a famous artist to create an album featuring portraits of musicians, including a blind binkar (a type of musician), Miyan Himmat Khan Kalawant.
• The title "Kalawant," reserved for dhrupad singers and bin players, signifies that he was among the elite professional musicians of his time.
• In South India, musical texts imposed a stricter scientific approach to music, whereas in North India, the absence of such texts allowed for greater improvisation and experimentation with ragas.
• This flexibility in North Indian music has persisted to the present day, characterized by a looser code of style.

In South India

In the South of India, around the 16th century, a musical system of parent and derivative modes, known as Janaka and Janya ragas, was established.

• The earliest treatise on this system is called Swaramela Kalanidhi, written by Ramamatya of Kondavidu in 1550.
• This treatise describes 20 Janaka and 64 Janya ragas.
• In 1609, Somanatha wrote Ragavibodha, incorporating some North Indian musical concepts.
• By the mid-17th century, Venkatamakhin composed a significant treatise called Caturdandi-prakasika in Thanjavur, around 1650.
• The system outlined in Caturdandi-prakasika became the foundation of the Carnatic system of music.

Hindustani School of Music

Historical development

• Hindustani classical music, also known as North Indian classical music or Shastriya Sangit, is a form of Indian classical music that originated in North India and is prevalent in Eastern Pakistan and North India.
• This tradition has its roots in Vedic ritual chants and has been evolving since the 12th century CE.
• Distinguished performers are often awarded titles of respect, with Hindus typically referred to as pandit and Muslims as ustad.
• A unique aspect of Hindustani music is its tradition of religious neutrality, where Muslim ustads may sing praises of Hindu deities and vice versa.

Divergence and Development:

• Around the 12th century, Hindustani classical music began to diverge from what became Carnatic classical music.
• Both systems share the core concepts of raga(melodic mode) and tala(rhythmic cycle).
• The tradition traces back to the ancient Samaveda, which set norms for chanting srutis or hymns.
• Musical principles were further refined in texts like Natya Shastra and Dattilam.

Medieval Influences:

• In medieval times, Hindustani music absorbed Persian influences, particularly through the contributions of Sufi composers like Amir Khusro and the Moghul courts.
• Notable figures like Tansen, often regarded as the father of modern Hindustani classical music, made significant contributions during this period.
• Tansen is credited with systematizing various aspects of Hindustani music, introducing new ragas, and creating the qawwali genre.
• He also played a role in the introduction of instruments like the sitar and tabla.

Regional Developments:

• After the dissolution of the Mughal empire, the patronage of music continued in smaller princely kingdoms like Lucknow, Patiala, and Banaras.
• This led to the emergence of diverse styles known as gharanas.
• Musician families often received substantial land grants, enabling them to sustain themselves and contribute to the musical tradition, as seen in the case of the Sham Chaurasia gharana.

Bhakti and Sufi Traditions:

• The Bhakti and Sufi traditions continued to evolve and interact with various gharanas and musical groups.
• Influential figures from the Bhakti tradition, such as Kabir, Nanak, Jayadeva, Vidyapati, Chandidas, and Meerabai, played a significant role in shaping the musical landscape.

Legacy:

• The innovations and musical forms developed by pioneers like Tansen and Raja Mansingh Tomar merged with the Hindu tradition, often composed in the popular languages of the people rather than Sanskrit.
• The dhrupad form, for instance, saw considerable development in the court of Gwalior and became a hallmark of the Gwalior gharana.

What are the similarities and differences between ‘Hindustani’ and ‘Carnatic’ music

Carnatic Music vs. Hindustani Music:

1. Origin:

• Carnatic music originated in South India.
• Hindustani music developed in various parts of Northern and Western India.

2. Musical Structure:

• Both styles are monophonic, follow a melodic line, and use a drone (tanpura).
• Carnatic music uses shrutis (semitones) to create ragas, resulting in a larger number of ragas compared to Hindustani music.

3. Ragas:

• Carnatic music has more ragas than Hindustani music.
• Some ragas have the same scale but different names in the two traditions (e.g., Hindolam vs. Malkauns).
• There are unique Carnatic ragas like Hamsadhwani and Charukeshi that share names and scales with Hindustani ragas.

4. Concepts:

• Carnatic music does not follow the Time (Samay) concept found in Hindustani music.
• Instead of Thaats, Carnatic music uses the Melakarta system.

5. Styles:

• Carnatic music has a single style of singing and performance.
• Hindustani music encompasses various styles, each known as a 'gharana.'

6. Instruments:

• Both styles use instruments like violin and flute.
• Hindustani music prominently features instruments like Tabla, Sarangi, Santoor, Sitar, and Clarinet.
• Carnatic music includes instruments such as Veena, Mridangam, Gottuvadyam, Mandolin, Jalatarangam, and others.

7. Raga Exposition:

• In Carnatic music, ragam, talam, and pallavi are central to raga exposition.
• Hindustani music emphasizes raga elaboration.

8. Fusion:

• Top music festivals in India often blend elements of both Carnatic and Hindustani music.

Principles of Hindustani music

• Rhythmic Organization: Based on patterns called tala.
• Melodic Foundations: Known as ragas, which consist of scales with a minimum of five and a maximum of seven notes (swaras). Each raga has specific ascending (Aaroh) and descending (Avaroh) movements.
• Ragas are also used in semi-classical and light music.
• Classification of Ragas: Ragass can be classified into melodic modes or parent scales called thaats, which consist of up to seven scale degrees or swara.
• Sargam: The system used by Hindustani musicians to name pitches.
• Srutis: The fine intonational differences between instances of the same swara, considered the smallest detectable pitch interval.
• Alap: A rhythmically free improvisation that explores the rules of the raga, bringing it to life and highlighting its characteristics.
• Bandish or Gat: A fixed melodic composition set in a specific raga, performed with rhythmic accompaniment by instruments like tabla or pakhavaj.

Types of compositions

1. Dhrupad: Dhrupad is a traditional and ancient style of singing in Hindustani classical music, mainly performed by male artists. It is characterized by:

• Accompanied by instruments like tambura and pakhawaj.
• Lyrics often sung in brajbhasha, a medieval form of North and East Indian languages.
• Instrumental music featuring the rudra veena.
• Themes primarily focused on devotion and praise of deities.
• Compositions starting with a lengthy alap.
• Historical significance with famous musicians like Tansen.
• Dhamar: A lighter form of Dhrupad sung during the Holi festival.
• Dhrupad was the dominant style of northern Indian classical music until it gradually gave way to the more flexible Khyal style.
• Despite its decline, Dhrupad has been preserved and promoted by various Gharanas such as the Dagar lineage, Bettiah Gharana, and Bishnupur Gharana.

2. Khyal: Khyal is a vocal form in Hindustani music that involves the interpretation of a raga through a composition (Bandish) and improvisation.

• Originating from medieval Persian music and influenced by Dhrupad, Khyal emphasizes improvisation and emotional expression.
• Typically involves two to eight-line lyrics set to a melody, often depicting intense emotions or romantic themes.
• Offers greater variety in embellishments compared to Dhrupad and has become the most popular genre in Hindustani classical music.
• Some believe that Khyal was created by Amir Khusrau in the late 16th century and gained prominence through Mughal court musicians.
• Famous composers from this era include Sadarang, Adarang, and Manrang.

Differences between Dhrupad and Khyal: Dhrupad and Khyal are two distinct forms of rendering a raga in Hindustani classical music.

• Dhrupad is characterized by a rigid composition and strict adherence to the tala (rhythmic cycle), while Khyal allows for greater freedom and improvisation.
• The percussion accompaniment in Dhrupad is typically the Mridang or Pakhawaj, whereas Khyal uses the tabla.
• Khyal incorporates unique elements like Sargam(singing notes without words) and Taan(sequential movement through notes), which are absent in Dhrupad.

3. Tarana: Tarana is a vocal form characterized by medium- to fast-paced songs that convey a mood of elation. It is typically performed towards the end of a concert and consists of lines of poetry with soft syllables or bols set to a tune. The tillana ofCarnatic music is based on tarana, although it is primarily associated with dance.

4. Tappa: Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music known for its rapid pace and intricate construction. It originated from the folk songs of Punjab's camel riders and was developed into a classical form by Shori Mian, a court singer for Asaf-Ud-Dowlah, the Nawab of Awadh.

5. Thumri: Thumri is a popular light classical form of Hindustani music, limited to specific ragas that evoke emotions like lyricism and eroticism. It is characterized by effective wordplay and is associated with the folk songs of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. Thumri is composed in dialects of Hindi and has three types: poorab ang, Lucknavi, and Punjabi thumri. The lyrics are often in a proto-Hindi language called Brij Bhasha and typically convey romantic themes.

6. Ghazal: Ghazal is a form of poetry that originated in Persian and became popular in the Urdu language in the Indian subcontinent. It was popularized by classical poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib, Daagh, Zauq, and Sauda. Vocal music set to ghazal poetry is popular in various forms across Iran, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Turkey, India, and Pakistan. Ghazal exists in multiple variations, including semi-classical, folk, and pop forms.