French Revolution and it’s Causes (1789-1815) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Impact of the French Revolution on Europe and Beyond

• The French Revolution marked a significant period of social and political upheaval in France, becoming one of the pivotal events in human history. Driven by liberal and radical ideas, the Revolution not only transformed France but also set in motion a global shift away from theocracies and absolute monarchies towards republics and democracies.
• With the onset of the French Revolution, European history became intertwined with the narrative of a single nation, a monumental event, and a key figure—France, the French Revolution, and Napoleon Bonaparte. The upheaval in France was not merely a domestic affair; it reverberated across Europe, laying the groundwork for a profound reconstruction of the continent.
• The Revolutionary Wars that followed the French Revolution sparked a wave of global conflicts, reaching as far as the Caribbean and the Middle East. The Revolution was as much about the clash of ideas as it was about military might. It propagated new principles of governance, innovative concepts of social organization, and fresh theories about human rights, challenging the established customs and institutions of Europe.
• Europe's old regime was characterized by authority, class privilege, and absolute rule. France, through the Revolution, unleashed powerful new ideas that swept away the worn-out and decayed structures, heralding the dawn of a new order. While armies can be resisted, the invasion of ideas is unstoppable. The novel concepts introduced by the French Revolution permeated Europe, delivering a significant shock to the prevailing social and political systems.

The outdated old order in Europe crumbled under the weight of new ideas such as equality, nationality, and democracy—ideas potent and captivating enough to take root among people long subjected to the tyranny of privilege, custom, and authority.

Old Regime of Europe before French Revolution

Political Weakness of Europe:

Absolutism was the dominant form of governance in Europe, with power concentrated in the hands of a few.

• Even in constitutional England, the majority lacked the right to vote.
• Republics like Venice were governed by a noble elite, similar to monarchies.
• Countries such as Austria, Russia, Spain, Prussia, France, Sweden, and most Italian states were ruled by absolute monarchs.
• These monarchies were often oppressive and repressive, allowing little room for liberty. Serfdom was widespread across Europe, with exceptions in France and England.

Low Tone of International Morality:
Rulers were not only absolute but also dishonest and unprincipled in their interactions with one another.

• The lack of a unifying religious and political principle contributed to this.
• The Reformation fractured the unity of Christendom, undermining the Pope's authority, while the Thirty Years' War weakened the Emperor's power.
• This left Europe without a dominant governing principle, leading to chaotic international relations where force became the norm.
• Respect for dynastic rights and treaty obligations was replaced by a policy focused on territorial or market gains.
• The partition of Poland by Russia, Prussia, and Austria exemplified the unscrupulous spirit of the time.
• The old regime was disloyal to its foundational principles of respect for the established order and legality.

Weak and Inefficient Political Organisation of Continental States

Political Weakness of Germany:

• Germany was a fragmented collection of about 360 sovereign states, loosely bound by the Holy Roman Empire.
• The imperial structure was weak, with the Emperor lacking authority over individual states.
• The Holy Roman Empire had long ceased to be "Holy, Roman, or an Empire."
• Prussia and Austria were the two dominant powers, but their rivalry created instability in Central Europe.

Weakness of the Austrian Empire:

• Austrian Empire, ruled by the House of Hapsburg, had prestigious claims but was fragmented.
• The Empire was a mix of Bohemians, Hungarians, Italians, Netherlanders, and Austrians, lacking a cohesive national identity.
• Emperor Joseph II attempted to unify the diverse territories by imposing German as the official language and streamlining legal systems.
• His reforms were met with resistance, leading to revolts in Bohemia, Hungary, and the Netherlands.
• The Empire was in a state of turmoil before the French Revolution.

Prussia: A Strong State:

• Prussia, under Frederick the Great, became prominent through forcible means, such as the seizure of Silesia and the partition of Poland.
• After Frederick's death in 1786, his successor Frederick William II focused on anti-Austrian and anti-Russian policies.
• At the onset of the French Revolution, Prussia was more concerned with the partition of Poland than the events in France.

Aggressive Policy of Russia:

• Under Catherine II, Russia pursued territorial expansion, particularly in Turkey and Poland.
• Catherine's ambitions created international complications, impacting the French Revolution.
• Austrian and Prussian focus on Russian movements delayed their joint action against France until after the Revolution was underway.

Italy: Weak and Divided:

• Italy was not a unified country but a collection of petty states with different governments and no internal cohesion.
• Many states were under foreign rule, lacking a strong national identity.

Spain: Decaying Power:

• Spain had lost its former power and prestige, experiencing a period of decline.

England: Recovering Strength:

• England had recently suffered a loss with the successful revolt of its American colonies.
• Its prestige was diminished, but under Pitt the Younger, England was recovering strength at home and regaining prestige abroad.

Social Weakness of Europe

• The nobles and clergy formed powerful orders distinct from the majority of the population.
• Taxation was unequal, with privileged orders enjoying exemptions while the lower classes bore the burden.
• The richer a person was, the less they paid to the state, leading to a crushing burden on the lower orders.

Feudalism was prevalent in many parts of Europe, with landowners in central and eastern Europe acting as petty sovereigns over the serfs who tilled their lands.

• Serfs cultivated the soil and the landlords appropriated the profits.
• Society was mainly composed of nobles and serfs, with little to no middle class connecting the two extremes.
• The condition of serfs was deplorable, as they were tied to the soil, subjected to forced labor, and lacked freedom in many domestic matters.

With privileges for a few and oppression for the masses, the social condition of Europe was one of misery.
It is no surprise that oppressed people across Europe welcomed revolutionary principles promising a better future.

Reasons for the French Revolution Occurring in France

Despite conditions in other Western European countries seeming ripe for revolution, it was France that experienced this upheaval. 

Here’s why:

Comparative Conditions of the French People:

• The condition of the French people was not significantly worse than that of people in other European countries. For instance, German, Polish, and Hungarian peasants lacked personal plots of land, freedom to marry, and the right to move freely, comparable to the conditions of Negro slaves in the USA.
• In contrast, there was no serfdom in France. French peasants were free to move and marry, although they could not sell their land. The political power of the feudal nobility had been diminished in France, whereas in Germany and Eastern Europe, the nobles retained significant authority.

Economic and Political Context:

• Even though the French monarchy was financially strained, the nation as a whole was prosperous. In comparison, the monarchies of Prussia and Russia were even more authoritarian.
• France had a large, prosperous, intelligent, and enlightened middle class, second only to England.

Consciousness of Rights:

• The prosperity of average French citizens and the absence of slavery enabled them to be critical of their government. When people experience certain rights, they become aware of the possibility of more rights.
• In other countries like Russia, Germany, Denmark, or Hungary, peasants burdened by feudal serfdom were too downtrodden to grasp concepts like civil equality and liberty.

French Middle Class:

• France was better off than other nations. The revolutionary crisis emerged there due to the relatively favorable social conditions. The French middle class was richer, more educated, and had closer ties to the upper echelons of society than their counterparts in other European nations.
• The French middle class was also more aware of the injustices that excluded them from political power and honors. Lacking the stark lifestyle differences that often separated the nobility from the middle class in other countries, the French middle class felt entitled to a place in public life.

Weakness of the French Monarchy:

• The French monarchy was weaker compared to other European despots. Its weakened state diminished its prestige and forced it to appeal to the nation for tax support.
• Other European monarchies were not as financially strained and maintained stronger control.

Influence of Revolutions and Philosophers:

• France was more influenced by the English and American Revolutions and was more exposed to the ideas of philosophers than any other European country.
• The presence of a wealthy, intelligent, and enlightened middle class in France provided leadership to the peasants and workers. This enlightened middle class was absent in other parts of Europe.

Role of the Middle Class:

• The middle class in France, although well-to-do, still belonged to an unprivileged class. They possessed wealth and intellect, which made them intolerant of the inequalities imposed by the Ancien Régime.
• Profoundly influenced by the philosophies of Rousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu, they found no justification for their humiliating condition.
• While unprivileged classes in other European countries also suffered, they lacked the idealism and leadership necessary to challenge the existing order, preventing revolutions from occurring there.

Feudal Privileges and Duties:

• In other countries, feudal lords enjoyed certain tax exemptions and had specific duties, such as military service to the king and maintaining law and order within their locality.
• In France, however, the feudal system had become obsolete. The king had stripped the nobles of governing powers but allowed them to retain their exemptions and privileges. This meant that feudal lords in France enjoyed rights and privileges without corresponding duties, leading to public irritation.
• The disparity in the privileges of the French nobles, who had no governing responsibilities, fueled discontent and ultimately led to the Revolution of 1789.

Centralization and Influence of Paris:

• France was unique in that its capital city, Paris, became the center of the nation’s political and administrative life. Once revolutionary forces gained control over Paris, the entire country followed suit.

Causes of Revolution

Evils of Absolutism:

• France was governed by a centralized monarchy, with the king holding absolute power.
• The representative institutions that once existed were either dismantled or brought under the king's control.
• The States-General, France's feudal parliament, had ceased to function.
• This centralization meant that the king had to be exceptionally capable to manage the vast responsibilities. Louis XIV, despite his flaws, was diligent and had the country's best interests at heart.
• In contrast, his successor Louis XV, was weak and more interested in enjoying the perks of royalty than fulfilling its duties.
• Louis XV's reign saw the government fall into the hands of greedy courtiers who prioritized their selfish interests over the state's welfare.
• The corrupt and oppressive governance led to widespread discontent, with individuals being imprisoned at will through letters de cachet.

Responsibility of the Bourbon Monarchy:

• The French monarchy under the Bourbons was a mix of British constitutionalism and continental despotism.
• Louis XIV established a bureaucratic and absolutist state, famously declaring, “The State, it myself.” However, this absolute power was more of a facade.
• Real power was often held by the aristocracy in the king's name.
• Louis XIV's extravagance, laziness, lack of reform, and military failures set the stage for the monarchy's decline. He failed to address the bourgeoisie's discontent by reducing the aristocracy's privileges or revitalizing the economy.
• Louis XV, aware of the potential repercussions of his policies, famously stated, “After me, the deluge.”

Weak Character of Louis XVI:

• Louis XVI was characterized as dull, timid, and indecisive, lacking the capacity to govern effectively.
• His reign was marked by chaos and extravagance, with the aristocracy enjoying privileges while the government splurged.
• The bourgeoisie criticized the aristocratic privileges and urged the king to implement reforms to eliminate them. However, the monarchy was too weak to confront the aristocracy.
• The Revolution emerged because the monarchy could not address the issue of privilege, leading to the downfall of feudal remnants.

Social Factors:

• In the 1780s, France had a population of around 28 million, with about 22 million engaged in agriculture. Most peasants lacked enough land to sustain their families and had to work as poorly paid laborers on larger farms.
• Despite some regional variations, French peasants were generally better off than those in countries like Russia or Poland. However, hunger was a constant issue, becoming acute during poor harvest years.
• Poverty was exacerbated by social inequality, with French society divided into privileged and unprivileged classes.
• The privileged class, including the nobility and higher clergy, enjoyed tax exemptions and monopolized honors and emoluments.
• The unprivileged class, comprising the bourgeoisie, laborers, and peasants (the Third Estate), bore the entire tax burden while being excluded from positions of authority.
• The privileged classes had rights without obligations, while the unprivileged classes had obligations without rights.

The Clergy (First Estate)

• The clergy, along with the nobility, constituted the privileged class. The higher clergy were a well-paid but idle group, monopolizing lucrative Church offices while ignoring their spiritual responsibilities.
• They were often recruited from the nobility's younger sons and were more concerned with personal advancement and courtly pleasures than with spiritual duties.
• This higher clergy had significant influence over government policy.
• In contrast, the lower clergy, who performed the real work of spiritual guidance and education, were poorly compensated and overworked.
• They worked in poverty with no hope of advancement, making them discontented and likely to side with the common people against the abuses of favoritism and absolutism.
• The tithes that peasants had to pay to their local churches were a source of grievance, as most parish priests were poor, and the contributions often went to an aristocratic and usually absentee abbot.
• Although the clergy made up only 0.5% of the population, they owned 15% of the land and performed essential public functions like running schools and keeping vital statistics records.
• The Church as an institution was both rich and powerful. Like the nobility, it paid no taxes and only contributed a grant to the state every five years, the amount of which was self-determined.
• While peasants remained faithful Catholics and held their village priests in esteem, the bourgeoisie adopted the anticlerical views of the Enlightenment philosophers.

The Nobility

• The nobility was deeply disliked, especially the feudal nobles, who had largely turned into greedy courtiers.
• In feudal times, the nobility enjoyed tax exemptions and other privileges in exchange for services rendered to the provincial government.
• As the monarchy centralized power, the nobles lost local authority but retained their feudal privileges.
• The absence of duties made their continued rights seem anomalous and irritating, particularly to peasants burdened by feudal exactions.
• Some historians argue that the revolution was directed not against the feudal system but against the "effete survival" of that system.
• Under this system, nobles, although only 2% of the population, controlled 20% of the land, enjoyed rights of hunting and forestry, exacted forced labor from peasants, were exempt from the Taille or property tax, and monopolized all offices in the army, navy, and Church without performing any state services.
• The French nobility was divided into nobles of the sword and nobles of the robe.
• Nobles of the Sword: This oldest class of nobility, dating back to the Middle Ages, was originally the knightly class owing military service for feudal lands. Later, they provided non-military services to the king. They were often disdainful of lesser nobility and aspired to restore their former power.
• Nobles of the Robe: These French aristocrats acquired their rank through holding judicial or administrative posts, often by buying their offices. While their positions did not grant a noble title, they became hereditary over time, and by the 19th century, there was little distinction between the two classes.
• Hobereaux or little falcons: Many noblemen with little wealth and power belonged to the lowest level of aristocracy. Pinched by rising prices, they could not afford the pleasures of the court and sought to conserve their status by collecting surviving feudal and manorial dues from the peasantry.
• This meticulous collection of dues prepared the way for document burning during the Revolution.

The Third Estate

• Below the two privileged orders was the vast majority of the population known as the Third Estate, which comprised over 97% of the population.
• It was not a homogeneous group and included the bourgeoisie(upper middle class), artisans, and peasants.
• Peasantry: Although the status of French peasants was better than that of peasants in other parts of Europe, such as central and eastern Europe where serfdom was prevalent, the condition of the peasantry, forming the largest section of the population, was extremely deplorable.
• Peasants had to pay rent to their feudal lords,tithes to the Church, and various taxes (land tax, income tax, poll tax, and other duties) to the king.
• The burden of taxation fell heavily on them, especially since the privileged orders were largely exempt from taxes.
• Peasants were subjected to galling feudal obligations, such as compulsory labor(Corvee) for road construction or repairs, grinding their corn in the lord’s mill, and enduring the sight of their crops being trampled by the lord’s hunting party.
• With unjust taxes and feudal obligations, peasants lived on the brink of disaster, often facing starvation.
• While they did not understand the reasons behind the wars that led to heavy taxation, they were acutely aware of the privileges enjoyed by the nobility and clergy.
• Rapid population growth left peasants with little or no surplus to sell, and inflation throughout the 18th century enriched many urban merchants and manufacturers but impoverished peasants.
• Part of the problem lay witheconomic fundamentalssuch as backward farming methods, land shortages, and overpopulation.
• Modern agricultural techniques that revolutionized farming elsewhere made little headway in France, where vast areas were left uncultivated or lay fallow every second or third year, adhering to medieval practices.
• Restrictions on the free movement of grain within France led to hoarding and specialization, increasing the risk of local famines in the event of a crop failure.
• With a continuously increasing rural population unable to find steady employment, unemployment and poverty fostered a revolutionary spirit among peasants. However, they did not demand changes in the form of government; they were unaware of the reform programs proposed by the Enlightenment. Their demands were more basic, focusing on land, tax relief, and similar issues.
• Artisans and Labourers: Although part of the Third Estate, artisans and laborers were much worse off than the bourgeoisie. They were entirely at the mercy of the wealthy middle class, which controlled commerce and industry through guilds and similar organizations. Textile spinners faced serious decline due to more efficient production elsewhere.
• In the textile industry, where France’s first factory system was just beginning, laborers were not allowed to form unions. Discontented wage earners and apprentices in cities were disadvantaged by rising prices. In urban areas, a displaced population of floating, seldom-employed workers was growing.
• The working classes began to see their problems as common concerns despite their specialized trades or the gap between semi-skilled, manual, and technically trained workers. Over time, the group known as sans-culottes(those without knee breeches) emerged, including both men (such as furniture makers and masons) and women (such as poissardes or fish sellers), united by a shared fear of starvation and the inability to afford bread.
• Bourgeoisie or Upper Middle Class: The bourgeoisie focused discontent and provided leadership. This group comprised the well-to-do, intelligent, and energetic segment of society, including rich merchants, bankers, storekeepers, lawyers, doctors, and craft workers running their own businesses.
• Practical businessmen, the bourgeoisie had accumulated wealth and secured a monopoly on municipal appointments. Aware of their equality with the nobility, they resented the existing system that made them feel socially inferior.
• Hostility toward the privileged estates and the propaganda of the philosophers united this middle class into a political force.
• Although their interests differed from those of other Third Estate members, they were a discontented class seeking political and social reforms. They suffered less than peasants and workers but resented more.
• While paying a smaller proportion of their incomes in taxes, they vehemently criticized the inequality of tax assessments. Wealthier businesspeople, benefiting from rising prices and acquiring some landed estates, complained about guild regulations and restrictions on free commercial activity. They found it galling to be snubbed by the nobility and excluded from posts and power in government, church, and army.
• The bourgeoisie initially took the lead in articulating the grievances of the entire Third Estate, compiling these grievances into statements called Cahiers, which were submitted to the Estates General in 1789.
• In the early stages of the Revolution, the actions were primarily driven by the bourgeoisie rather than the peasantry. While some argue that the oppressed peasantry, driven by their extreme suffering, initiated the revolution, this perspective is contested.
• According to Professor Hearnshaw, the French peasants were better off than their counterparts in Germany, Spain, Russia, and Poland. Their primary grievance was not exclusion from political power but the disproportionately heavy burden of national taxation.
• Peasants had no desire to participate in state affairs and lacked the capacity or inclination for heroic action. They were neither intellectually equipped nor capable of precipitating the revolution.

Influence of Enlightenment on the French Revolution

• The French Revolution of 1789 was not just a political upheaval but was deeply rooted in a revolutionary shift in ideas and philosophies.
• The 18th century, often referred to as the Age of Reason, marked the peak of rationalism and the spirit of free inquiry that had been nurtured since the Renaissance.
• Enlightenment thinkers challenged the traditional authority of the King and the Church, advocating for a society built on reason rather than age-old customs.

Key Philosophers and Their Contributions:

• Montesquieu:
• In his book The Spirit of Laws(1748), Montesquieu criticized the divine right of kings and absolute monarchy, which was prevalent in France at the time.
• He advocated for a constitutional monarchy similar to Britain’s and emphasized the importance of the Separation of Powers among the legislative, judicial, and executive branches to ensure individual liberty.
• Montesquieu was influenced by John Locke’s ideas on the separation of powers and sought to adapt these principles to the context of France.
• Voltaire:
• Voltaire was a fierce critic of the State and especially targeted the bigotry and intolerance of the Church through his powerful writings.
• His works, such as The Age of Louis XIV and Philosophical Dictionary, promoted reason and questioned the authority of established institutions.
• Voltaire’s experiences in England, where he was exposed to Locke’s and Newton’s ideas, significantly shaped his thoughts.
• He praised Locke as a leading English philosopher and incorporated Locke’s views on tolerance and empirical philosophy into his own writings.
• Rousseau:
• Rousseau’s work, particularly The Social Contract, introduced the idea that government legitimacy comes from the consent of the governed.
• He emphasized the equality of all men and the sovereignty of the people, advocating for a fundamental reorganization of society based on the will of the people.
• Rousseau’s ideas became a rallying point for the Revolution, promoting democratic principles and the authority of the populace.

Economic Critiques and Social Commentary:

• Physiocrats led by Quesney, criticized the French economic system, arguing against state interference in trade and commerce.
• They believed that land was the primary source of wealth and advocated for a single land-tax, promoting free trade and laissez-faire policies.
• Their ideas influenced the early stages of the French Revolution, particularly the abolition of internal customs duties.

Encyclopedists:

• Under the leadership of Denis Diderot, the Encyclopedists published a comprehensive encyclopedia that compiled human knowledge and criticized existing institutions.
• This work became widely popular and contributed to the spread of Enlightenment ideas.

Freemasonry:

• This fraternal organization, initially apolitical, became radicalized in the late 18th century, promoting themes of liberty, equality, and fraternity.
• Many key figures in the Revolution were Freemasons, and the ideals of the organization became central to revolutionary rhetoric.

Influence of English and American Ideas:
Enlightenment ideas that spurred the French Revolution were influenced by both English and American examples:

English Influence:

• British governance was based on limited monarchy and parliamentary government, contrasting sharply with France’s absolute monarchy.
• French philosophers like Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau, who were influenced by British empiricism and Locke’s philosophy, criticized the French system and advocated for reforms.
• Locke’s ideas on political authority and governance were particularly resonant with French thinkers, who saw them as solutions to France’s issues.

American Influence:

• The American Revolution provided a practical example of Enlightenment principles in action.
• American diplomats like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson mingled with French intellectuals, spreading revolutionary ideas.
• French soldiers who fought in America returned with republican and democratic ideals, further fueling discontent with French institutions.

Role of Philosophers in the Revolution:

• While the French Revolution was primarily driven by social grievances and government failures, philosophers played a crucial role in shaping revolutionary thought.
• They exposed the flaws of the Old Regime and encouraged critical discussions about existing institutions.
• Although philosophers did not advocate for revolution, their ideas prepared the ground for questioning traditional authority.
• For instance, Voltaire’s critiques of the Church and nobility weakened these institutions’ prestige, aiding revolutionary efforts.
• Philosophers like Rousseau were later used to justify actions during the Revolution, even if their original intentions were different.

Financial and Economic Crisis in France (1787)

Economic Capability:

• Despite facing difficulties, France was one of the most economically capable nations in Europe in 1787.
• With a population exceeding 28 million, France was second only to Russia in Europe.
• France was highly urbanized, with Paris being the second-largest city in Europe after London.
• France’s agricultural productivity, industrialization, and gross national product were among the highest in Europe, contributing to its strong economy.
• France’s economy accounted for about 14% of continental Europe’s total, making it the premier economic power on the continent.

Debt and Financial Crisis:

• The financial crisis in France was largely due to its mounting debt.
• Historical debts from the wars of Louis XIV were exacerbated by the extravagance of Louis XV and Louis XVI.
• Rapidly increasing government costs and expenses from the Seven Years’ War and the American Revolutionary War contributed to the economic crisis.
• Efforts to stabilize finances since the 1770s had failed, pushing France closer to bankruptcy.
• The government’s inability to meet expenses led to a critical financial condition and a push towards revolutionary change.

Taxation Issues:

• Tax assessment faced issues of privilege, concession, and exemption, while collection was plagued by extravagance, waste, and corruption.
• The privileged classes were mostly exempt from taxes, placing a heavier burden on the common people, leading to widespread unpopularity of Louis XVI and his ministers.
• High taxes were levied to support a wealthy monarchy and aristocracy, causing resentment among peasants and the emerging bourgeoisie.
• France relied heavily on internal tax revenue, with significant internal tariffs creating regional tax barriers that hindered economic unity.
• Peasants faced multiple taxes, including tithe, land tax, property tax, and capitation, along with various obligations to landlords.
• The method of tax collection often involved private individuals who exacted high amounts from taxpayers, further exacerbating the burden on the lower classes.
• The inequality and oppressiveness of taxation became a decisive cause of the Revolution.

Failure of Reforms and Financial Crisis:

• Louis XV was unable to resolve fiscal problems due to court conflicts and lack of coherent policies.
• Louis XVI’s reign saw attempts at tax reforms by ministers like Turgot and Necker, aiming to include the nobles as taxpayers, but these faced resistance from the parlements.
• The financial situation worsened with France’s involvement in the American Revolutionary War, adding to public debt.
• Necker’s approach of relying on international loans rather than raising taxes highlighted the regressive tax system.
• Calonne’s failure to implement a new tax code, including taxation of the nobility and clergy, led to his dismissal and further financial decline.
• The calling of the Estates-General in 1789 by Louis XVI was a response to the crisis, leading to the formation of the National Assembly by the Third Estate and the onset of the French Revolution.

Food Scarcity and Social Unrest:

• Food scarcity in the 1780s due to crop failures led to a rise in bread prices, causing starvation among the poor.
• The Great Fear was a panic that led to rural unrest, fueled by rumors of an aristocratic plot to starve or burn the population.
• Meager harvests and harsh winters in the years preceding the revolution increased bread prices significantly, intensifying hunger and revolutionary sentiment.
• The deregulation of the grain market in bad harvest periods led to high bread prices and famines, prompting mass revolts.
• Urbanization during the Industrial Revolution created overcrowded cities filled with the hungry and disaffected, providing fertile ground for revolution.

Transparency and Political Crisis:

• Public awareness of the government’s financial failures and the repeated inability to meet financial obligations contributed to the political crisis.
• Louis XVI was pressured to disclose state finances annually and promised to reconvene the Estates-General.
• The struggle for reform displayed the regime's disintegration and highlighted the nobility's power over the monarchy.
• The financial crisis evolved into a political crisis, setting the stage for the French Revolution.

Comparison of the French Revolution with the English Revolutions

• The English revolutions, such as the Glorious Revolution of 1688, were primarily political in nature. Their goal was to limit the king's arbitrary powers and transfer authority to the British Parliament, which was seen as representing the people. The movement in England targeted the unlawful use of royal prerogative, opposing the kings' claims of divine right monarchy. The people were content when constitutional checks were imposed on royal power to safeguard their rights and privileges.
• In contrast, the French Revolution was initially driven by social issues and later by political ones. While the French people faced political disabilities, they were more concerned about the social inequalities imposed by the existing system. Unlike in England, where the distinction between clan and class was narrower, the privileged classes in France enjoyed disproportionate advantages, leading to widespread irritation and oppression. The people sought to abolish privileges and open careers to talent. Notably, when Napoleon established social equality, the people accepted his suppression of liberty.
• The English Revolution was conservative, addressing specific grievances without a radical break from the past. The Bill of Rights after the Glorious Revolution did not introduce significant changes, and the king was required to follow established laws rather than personal whims. In contrast, the French Revolution was destructive, inspired by ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity. The French aimed to completely dismantle the Old Regime and establish a new order based on popular sovereignty, seeking a thorough reconstruction of social and political systems.