Causes of the Excesses of the French Revolution | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Excesses of the French Revolution

• One reason why the French Revolution became chaotic and violent was that control of events shifted increasingly into the hands of the Parisian mob from the very beginning.
• In 1788, France faced a famine, leading thousands of starving individuals to flock to the relief works established in Paris. The presence of these desperate and destitute crowds tainted the entire course of the elections for the States General, which had been summoned to meet.
• While philosophers and idealists envisioned human perfectibility and universal brotherhood, the fate of France was being dictated by the hungry mob. In the hands of these ignorant and desperate individuals, the situation naturally drifted towards anarchy and violence.
• To compound matters, King Louis XVI was weak and indecisive, unable to either lead or suppress the revolution effectively. When the revolution commenced, he lacked the capacity to grasp the seriousness of the situation. His response was marked by hesitation and indecision. After recognizing the National Assembly, he attempted to suppress it by force, leading to the first outburst of popular fury—the storming of the Bastille. His subsequent actions only worsened the situation.
• His attempted escape, his vetoing of the Assembly's measures against the emigres and the non-juring clergy undermined people's faith in his commitment to the constitution. This created an atmosphere of distrust and suspicion, where events could easily spiral out of control. This is precisely what happened.

• The king was suspected of treasonous correspondence with the emigres, who sought to restore the Old Regime with the help of foreign powers. The actions of the emigrant nobles greatly angered the revolutionists, and their outrage intensified when they suspected the king of sympathizing with the emigres' plans.
• However, what contributed most to the horrific excesses of the Revolution was the intervention of foreign powers attempting to halt its progress. This infuriated the French people beyond measure.
• When Austria and Prussia declared war against France to defend monarchical principles in Europe, the French people were provoked. The advance of the Austro-Prussian army incited panic and led to the gruesome massacres of nobles, priests, and anyone suspected of royalist sympathies. These atrocities became known as the September massacres.
• Next came the execution of the king, which embroiled the Republic in a war against nearly all of Europe. The First Coalition was formed, and France was attacked from all sides.
• In addition to this external threat, internal troubles arose. Many departments rebelled against the tyranny of the Paris Commune, while peasants in the provinces rose against the religious policies of the Revolution. In essence, a counter-revolution erupted within France.

It was this extreme danger that led to the most severe excesses of the French Revolution. To navigate this critical situation, absolute unity of action was necessary. The Jacobins resolved with grim determination to eliminate all anti-revolutionary elements, establishing a Reign of Terror to achieve this goal.

Criticism of the King’s Conduct

• Although well-meaning and sincerely desiring reforms, Louis XVI was largely responsible for the outbreak of the Revolution as well as much of its excesses.He was weak and incapable of initiative and was not wise enough to profit by the advice of those who knew better. Hence his conduct was marked by vacillation and irresolution.
• Thus, had he given his whole-hearted support to Turgot, the financial position of the country would have greatly improved. The burden of taxation would have been equalised and many odious privileges removed.
• In brief, Turgot’s reforms would have knocked down the bottom of the Revolution and the necessity of summoning the States General might have been averted.
• But the weak king was unable to resists the pressure of the corrupt court and the privileged orders and yielded to their clamour by dismissing Turgot. He thus missed a great chance of averting the Revolution.
• The subsequent conduct of the king hastened the Revolution.
• When the Third Estate took the momentous step of converting the States-General into the National Assembly and thus ignored the privileged orders, two courses were open to the king, via, to suppress it by force or to forestall its actions by announcing a programme of royal reforms.
• But he was too humane to resort to bloodshed and too inert to check the course of events.
• Had he boldly dissociated himself from the privileged orders and led the movement along the path of ordered reform, the whole subsequent history of France might have been different.
• In this connection it should be noted that at first the Revolution was not directed against monarchy but against the privileged orders.
• Hence Louis XVI, by ignoring the advice of the courtiers and by boldly declaring for the Commons, might have brought about the peaceful regeneration of France. But he wavered between coercion and conciliation.
• Lastly, the king did not frankly accept the situation.
• His attitude towards the emigres excited the suspicion of the people and led them to believe that he was in secret sympathy with their plans.
• This suspicion was heightened by his attempted flight which branded him as a willing emigres.
• The menacing manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick was looked upon as the direct outcome of the intrigues of the emigres inspired by the machinations of the king.

Hence followed terrible atrocities, suspension of the king and his eventual execution.

Louis XVI would have been spared this fate had he been straight forward in his attitude towards the Revolution and denounced in unequivocal terms the conduct of the emigres.

Causes of the Failure of the First Coalition

The First Coalition against France faced significant challenges that ultimately led to its failure. The coalition was marked by internal discord and divergent aims among its members, which hampered their effectiveness. Here are the main reasons for the failure:

Internal Discord and Divergent Aims:

• The coalition was paralyzed by discord among its members, each with different objectives.
• The allies spent more time discussing and thwarting their own plans than focusing on the enemy.
• There was a lack of unity of purpose and effort among the allies.

Conflicting Objectives:

• The main objective of England was to expel the French from the Netherlands and secure the province for Austrian control.
• Austrian goals involved recovering the Netherlands and exchanging it for Bavaria, a plan that England did not support.
• Prussia was more focused on dismembering Poland than assisting Austria against the French.

French Advantages:

• Despite the internal disagreements among the allies, the French were united in their efforts to defend their country. They had the advantage of a central position, a unified purpose, and central command.
• French soldiers were motivated by a sense of patriotism and a zeal for spreading the ideas of liberty and equality.

Misconceptions of the War:

• The allies, particularly Pitt, underestimated the duration and intensity of the war.
• There was a belief that the French Republic was bankrupt and would quickly succumb, a misconception that proved disastrous for the allies' strategy.

Success of the French Revolution

• The revival of the Polish question by Catherine II in 1792 distracted Austria and Prussia, causing them to watch each other with jealousy.
• This weakened their cooperation against France and aided the Revolution's triumph.

Role of the Reign of Terror:

• The Reign of Terror established a strong government and restored unity in France.
• It enabled France to mobilize its strength against the enemy effectively.

Emergence of a National Spirit:

• The crisis also produced Carnot, whose organizing ability ensured the success of the French armies.
• Moreover, the French people transformed from subjects of a dynasty into members of a nation.
• The Revolution became associated with patriotism, and when threatened by foreign intervention, it mobilized the latent energies of the French people to defend a cause that concerned every citizen.
• This national spirit proved too strong for France's enemies, marking the emergence of France as a unified nation.

Napoleon's Career from the Peace of Amiens (1803) to the Treaty of Tilsit (1807):

• The Peace of Amiens was a brief and ineffective truce. Napoleon aimed to use this time to strengthen his position in France by implementing various reforms. His ultimate goal was to gather resources and make a strong push for global dominance.
• On the other hand,England hoped that peace with France would lead to a revival of trade and industry. However, they were disappointed when Napoleon imposed high protective tariffs that limited English competition.

This ongoing tension was heightened by Napoleon's aggressive actions, which included:

• Annexing Piedmont
• Intervening in Switzerland's affairs by sending troops and acting as a "mediator."
• Incorporating Holland into France.

England criticized Napoleon for his peacetime aggressions, which seemed almost as frequent as his wartime actions. The rapid expansion of French influence alarmed Great Britain. Even more troubling for the British was Napoleon's revival of the Bourbons' colonial policy.

• He acquired the vast territory of Louisiana from Spain in 1800 and contemplated establishing a French empire there. Napoleon also sent an expedition to reclaim the islands of San Domingo(Haiti), where a Black revolt was occurring. The British government viewed this move as a challenge to their control over the West Indies.
• Although these colonial endeavors ultimately failed, they deeply unsettled the British. However, what truly undermined the system of Amiens was Napoleon's ambitions in the East. He dispatched a mission to India under General Decaen to incite Indian princes against England. Another mission, disguised as a commercial venture but with political motives, was sent to Egypt under General Sebastiani. Sebastiani's report, suggesting that the French might reoccupy Egypt, was published by Napoleon, putting England on the defensive.

In response, England refused to evacuate Malta, a strategically important location on the route to India. This escalation led to the collapse of the Treaty of Amiens and the outbreak of war between England and France in 1803.

The Napoleonic Wars

Plan to Invade England and the Battle of Trafalgar:

• Napoleon started by taking control of Hanover, a German territory belonging to the English king, and closed its ports to British trade.
• He then planned a massive naval buildup at Boulogne to prepare for the invasion of England. However, due to a lack of a strong fleet, he had to abandon this idea.
• His hopes of invading England were completely dashed by Admiral Nelson's decisive victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. This battle destroyed French naval power and eliminated the possibility of an invasion of Britain.

Napoleon Breaking the Third Coalition:

• At the same time, Russia and Austria were growing uneasy. The Czar was upset by Napoleon's self-proclamation as Emperor, and Austria was concerned about Napoleon's expansion in Italy, where it had once been the dominant power.
• In response, England, under Prime Minister Pitt, formed a new coalition with Sweden, Austria, and Russia to check Napoleon's power. This led to the formation of the Third Coalition against France.
• Upon learning of this coalition, Napoleon swiftly changed his plans and directed his Grand Army from Boulogne against Austria, achieving victory at Ulm.
• Napoleon then dealt a crushing defeat to the Austrians and Russians at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805. This victory shattered the coalition and forced Austria to sign the humiliating Peace of Pressburg.
• Through this treaty, Austria ceded Venice to the Kingdom of Italy and Tyrol to Bavaria, losing nearly three million subjects.
• Austria's influence in Germany was further diminished by the recognition of Bavaria and Wurtemberg as independent kingdoms.

Napoleon's Political Creations:

• After the Treaty of Pressburg, Napoleon began to surround France with a series of dependent kingdoms. Before Austerlitz, he transformed the Cisalpine Republic into the Kingdom of Italy and crowned himself King of Italy.
• Following Austerlitz, he changed the Batavian Republic into the Kingdom of Holland, with his brother Louis Bonaparte as King. Another brother, Joseph, became King of Naples.
• These changes aligned with the new French constitutional model, reflecting France's status as a monarchy.

Reconstruction of Germany:

• Napoleon's most significant changes were in Germany. His policy aimed to strengthen the smaller German states to counterbalance the power of Austria and Prussia.
• He favored these lesser states, making them strong enough to be useful allies and creating buffer states between France and its larger neighbors.
• Through the Peace of Pressburg, he elevated Bavaria and Wurtemberg from duchies to kingdoms and expanded their territories at Austria's expense.
• The Elector of Baden received part of the Austrian province in western Germany and became Grand Duke, further limiting Austrian power.

Treatment of Prussia:

• Prussia faced harsh treatment after the Austerlitz campaign, as Napoleon was displeased with Prussia's threats of intervention.
• By the treaty, Prussia had to surrender Rhenish territories, which were transformed into the Grand Duchy of Berg.
• In return, Prussia received the undesirable gift of Hanover, leading to conflict with England and requiring Prussia to close its coastline to English trade.

Confederation of the Rhine:

• After humiliating Austria, Napoleon focused on reconstructing the German political landscape. He established the Confederation of the Rhine, a new political union under French patronage.
• This Confederation included Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, and thirteen other minor states in southwestern Germany. These states renounced their allegiance to the Holy Roman Empire, recognized Napoleon as their Protector, and pledged support in his wars.
• The smaller princes and Imperial Knights within the Confederation lost their governing rights, and their territories were annexed to larger provinces.
• This new organization was designed to counterbalance the power of Prussia and Austria and to exclude Russia from Western Europe.

End of the Holy Roman Empire:

• The secession of these states marked a revolution in the German political system. The Confederation of the Rhine effectively ended the Holy Roman Empire, which had existed for a thousand years, albeit in a weakened form.
• Emperor Francis II resigned his imperial title and became Francis I, Emperor of Austria, marking the official dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.

Effects of Napoleon's Rule on Germany:

• Napoleon simplified the German map by suppressing ecclesiastical states and distributing their territories among lay states, leading to the elimination of 112 small states through mediatisation.
• This simplification of the political landscape was a significant step towards German unity, as it reduced the number of small states and erased internal frontiers.
• Despite the forceful means used, Napoleon's actions inadvertently contributed to the future unification of Germany.
• Alongside French influence, many beneficial changes were introduced in the annexed territories, including better governance and social ideals based on Napoleon's Civil Code.
• The French example had a stimulating effect on the rest of Germany, leading to positive changes in governance and societal norms over time.

War Against Prussia:

• Initially, Prussia adopted a neutral stance towards France. However, Napoleon's interference in Germany and his disregard for the Prussian king stirred national sentiment and a desire for war among the Prussian people.
• The gift of Hanover to Prussia, which was both humiliating and problematic, became a point of contention. When it was revealed that Napoleon had proposed returning Hanover to England during peace negotiations, Prussia's tolerance snapped.
• Prussia formed an alliance with Russia and declared war on France. However, Russia was unprepared, and England, despite joining the alliance, could not provide immediate assistance.
• As a result, the Prussian armies suffered a crushing defeat, and Napoleon entered Berlin in triumph in 1806.

War Against Russia:

• After defeating Prussia, Napoleon turned his attention to Russia, the ally of Prussia. He achieved a significant victory over Russia at the Battle of Friedland in 1807.
• The Czar was forced to agree to an armistice, which was soon followed by the Treaty of Tilsit.
• The treaty restored Russia without territorial losses but significantly reduced Prussia's territory. Two kingdoms were created from Prussian territory: the Kingdom of Westphalia, ruled by Napoleon's brother Jerome, and the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, formed from Prussian Poland and given to the Elector of Saxony.
• Prussia lost nearly half of its territory and became a minor power. A notable aspect of the treaty was the alliance between Russia and France, establishing a secret agreement to divide Europe between them.
• Napoleon would exercise supremacy in the west, while Czar Alexander I would control the east. The Treaty of Tilsit marked the peak of Napoleon's success, with most of Europe under his influence.

From the Peace of Tilsit (1807) to the Battle of Waterloo (1815)

Zenith of Napoleon’s Power:

• The Treaty of Tilsit represented the pinnacle of Napoleon's power in Europe. He had achieved every goal, defeated all enemies, and reshaped Europe to his liking.
• As Emperor of the French and King of Italy, his influence was supreme in Germany through the Confederation of the Rhine, and he exercised control over Switzerland, North Italy, and various other territories.
• His brothers ruled as kings in dependent states, and through a system of alliances and subordinate governments, Napoleon became the effective sovereign of all of Western Europe, with only England remaining as an enemy.
• Napoleon was determined to crush England, marking a significant phase in his quest for dominance in Europe.

The Empire at Its Height (1807-1811):

• Following the Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon's territories expanded significantly, reaching their maximum extent in 1811.
• At its height, the Napoleonic Empire stretched uninterrupted across the continent, with extensions to the north-west and south-west along the European coastline.
• To the north-west, Napoleon annexed Holland in 1810, expanding his control over North Germany up to the Baltic Sea to close off the northern coastline to British ships.
• In the south-west, he conquered Genoa, Tuscany, and the Papal States in Italy to exclude the British from the Mediterranean. The Kingdom of Italy and the Kingdom of Naples were also part of his system, with territories ruled by his family members.
• Napoleon’s empire was characterized by unity under his rule, with diverse nationalities living under the same laws and administration, showcasing the realization of a universal empire.

Beneficial Effects of Napoleon’s Rule:

• Napoleon's rule brought unity and efficient administration to Italy, laying the foundations of Italian nationalism. His centralization of administration and the introduction of the Civil Code inspired ideas of national unity and practical governance.
• In Germany, Napoleon's rule similarly had beneficial effects, simplifying the political landscape and promoting better governance influenced by French ideals.
• The creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw stirred Polish nationalism, and the spread of French ideas under Napoleon's empire contributed to the weakening of the Old Regime in Europe.
• Despite the forceful means employed, Napoleon's influence and the changes brought about during his rule had far-reaching and positive impacts on the nations of Europe.

Significance of the Empire

• The political existence of the Napoleonic Empire was short but it was an event of profound significance in the history of Europe.
• It brought Europe into contact with the ideas and institutions of France and thereby shook the foundation of the social and political structure of Europe. It was thus the Revolution in its European aspect.
• Wherever Napoleon’s rule extended, there followed the abolition of feudalism and serfdom, recognition of equality of all citizens before the law and the precepts and principles of his famous Civil Code.
• The people of Europe readily adopted French Institution which freed them from the tyranny of custom and privilege.
• Thus did Napoleon impose the Revolution on Europe. “There was only one force in Europe which could destroy the barriers of traditional systems and eliminate the network of internal frontiers, and that force could only enter a foreign country behind the bayonets of French troops.”
• The simplification of the maps of Germany and Italy: Napoleon’s rule secured administrative unity in both countries and these proved to be the prelude to national unity. It was the highest form of political education to come under French rule.
• Empire introduce far-reaching changes throughout Central and Southern Europe.
• Even those countries which were outside the sphere of French influence were stimulated by the inspiration of French ideas.
• These changes became too widespread and too deep-rooted to be wiped away by the reaction which followed the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire.
• Out of these changes a new Europe was to be created and it was Napoleon’s greatest glory that he made it possible.
• His greatest service to Europe was that he helped to destroy the anomalies of its Old Regime and thereby paved the Way for its reconstruction on new lines and principles.
• The magnitude of his achievements is not diminished by the fact that they were also the expression of his personal ambition. (Hence it has been remarked by P. Guedalla that the Napoleonic Empire was not an interruption, but an extension of the Revolution. It was the last phase of the Revolution).

The Empire was also meant to shut down British trade:

• The Empire is also to be looked at from another point of view.
• Napoleon sought to turn his European predominance into an effective means for compassing the economic ruin of England.
• His failure to destroy the sea power of England convinced him of the necessity of undermining her resources by excluding British trade from the Continent.
• To this end it was necessary to control the whole coast-line of Europe and so Napoleon set about extending French influence throughout the Continent.
• The Empire was to be turned into an economic weapon with which to strike at England. It was to be controlled by a uniform fiscal policy based upon the exclusion of British trade and commerce.
• To his political supremacy in Europe Napoleon wanted to add economic dictatorship.

The Continental system and its effect:

• Napoleon’s power being military and not naval, he found it impossible to make a direct attack upon England.
• The Battle of Trafalgar had made it quite plain.
• So he sought to bring England to terms by indirect means, by ruining her trade and commerce upon which her power depended.
• Starting from the premise that England was a nation of shopkeepers, he concluded that the closure of every continental market to British goods would be a fatal wound to that country.
• So in 1806 he issued from Berlin a series of decrees (Berlin Decrees of 1806) declaring a blockade of the British Isles and forbidding all commerce with them.
• All British goods were ordered to be seized.
• England retaliated by Orders in Council which forbade all trade with ports belonging to France or her allies.
• Whereupon Napoleon issued his Milan Decree (1807) by which he declared that any ship of any country which should touch at a British port, was liable to be seized and treated as a prize.
• The Berlin and the Milan decrees formed what is called Napoleon’s Continental System.
• At Tilsit, he secured the adhesion of Russia to this scheme of destroying England’s trade.

Effects of Continental System:

• Napoleon’s plan proved a failure.
• As the British fleet controlled the seas, no colonial goods could be obtained except through British vessels.
• English commerce though put to great disadvantage, went on as before but that of the continental states was ruined.
• The result was that the prices of the necessaries of life went up enormously and the greatest sufferers were the inhabitants of the Continent.
• As a consequence the subject allies of France became discontented with Napoleon and his rule became hateful to the mass of the population.
• The continental system was one of the greatest blunders of Napoleon‘s.
• This attempt at industrial strangulation of England rebounded upon himself and was one of the potent causes of his downfall.
• To enforce this system, he had to adopt a policy of systematic aggression upon other countries, which led to a succession of costly wars, exhausting his resources in men and money.

England seizes Danish Fleet:

• It was Napoleon’s design to close the Baltic to British shipping and so he had secretly arranged at Tilsit that the two Baltic powers, Denmark and Sweden, should be compelled, to join the continental league against England.
• The British foreign minister Canning got wind of this secret arrangement and determined to forstall Napoleon.
• Fearing that the Danish navy might be seized by France and used against England, he dispatched a British fleet to Denmark and demanded the surrender of the Danish fleet.
• The Danes refused, whereupon Copenhagen was bombarded and the Danish was forcibly brought to England.

The Spanish Experiment and the Peninsular war:

• Napoleon had failed in the Baltic; he now turned to the Iberian Peninsula in order to bring Portugal within his comprehensive economic system.
• He asked Portugal, an old ally of England, to accept the Berlin Decrees and to close her ports to British trade, but met with an evasive reply which practically amounted to refusal.
• Thereupon he concluded the secret Treaty with Spain for the partition of Portugal and her colonies between France and Spain.
• In pursuance of this scheme he sent a French army which in conjunction with Spanish troops, occupied Portugal.
• The royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil under the protection of the English fleet (1807).
• Napoleon’s design against Portugal was part of his larger scheme for the enslavement of Spain.
• Ever since the treaty of Basle (1795) Spain had humbly followed in the wake of French policy.
• But a mobilisation of Spanish troops during Napoleon’s campaign of Jena excited his suspicion and Napoleon saw behind this act a Bourbon menace to his own safety.
• Hence under the pretext of sending help to French army for the conquest of Portugal he began to pour troops into Spain, who occupied some of the Spanish strongholds.
• Next, taking advantage of a quarrel between the Spanish King (Charles IV) and his son Ferdinand, Napoleon invited them to lay their dispute before him and then forced them both to resign their rights to the crown.
• He then put his own brother, Joseph, on the Spanish throne.
• This flagrant violation of law and justice was the most fatal blunder on Napoleon’s part.
• It brought against him an enemy he had never met before, viz, the determined spirit of a nation to defend its liberty.
• He had overthrown kings and governments but now for the first time he had to wage war with peoples.
• Napoleon had bullied and tricked the Spanish royal dynasty.
• He had forgotten the Spanish royal dynasty.
• At the news that a foreigner had been treacherously placed upon the throne there was a violent explosion of Spanish patriotism, and all Spain rose to a man against the usurper.
• In every province popular Junta or committees were formed to organise resistance which proved to be national in its spontaneity and local in its intensity.
• At the same time an appeal was sent to England for help.
• In 1808 Europe was astonished at the unfamilar Spectacle of the surrender of a French army at Baylen.
• This was the first victory of the Spanish patriots.
• Its effects were great and far-reaching.
• It broke the spell of French invincibility, encouraged the patriots to further resistance and gave an impetus to nationalist movements in Central Europe.
• Joseph fled from Madrid and the fortunes of the Spanish patriots were still further advanced by the landing in Portugal of a British force under Sir Arthur Wellesley.
• The Peninsular War had begun.
• Geographical conditions enabled England to exercise effective military pressure upon the French.
• The British armies had rarely enjoyed upon the Continent a more convenient theatre of war than the territory of Spain and Portugal.
• The national rebellion (of Spain) provided them with the benefits of a friendly country, and the command of the sea ensured to them liberty of manoeuvre, continuity of supply, and the certainty of safe retreat.”
• The English utilised these advantages.
• Peninsular war started with Wellesley landing in Portugal and marching upon Lisbon, then held by France.
• By 1812 the French were distracted by the effort of the Russian expedition and so Wellington was in a position to develop an offensive campaign.
• By 1813, Napoleon had abdicated and the allied forces occupied Paris.

Causes of French Failure in the Peninsular War

Napoleon's military failure in Spain can be attributed to several key reasons:

1. Lack of Unified Control:

• Napoleon faced numerous demands on his attention, preventing him from personally overseeing all operations in Spain.
• This lack of direct control resulted in a failure to achieve the necessary unity of action for success.
• Generals in Spain were often jealous and prevented coordinated efforts during critical moments.

2. Underestimating Spanish Resistance:

• Napoleon underestimated the strength of Spanish national resistance, leading him to not commit all his resources to the effort.
• This miscalculation resulted in significant mistakes throughout the war.
• For example, in 1809, he left for France before the Spanish rebellion was fully suppressed.
• In 1813, he made ineffective attempts to hold Spain with armies that, if deployed to Central Europe, could have saved his empire.
• These policy mistakes, combined with a lack of unified action, led to serious setbacks, contributing to the perception that the Peninsula was the grave of French military reputation.

3. Challenging Physical Geography:

• The physical features of Spain posed challenges for the French military.
• Spain's mountainous terrain and poverty made it difficult to secure food and transport for a large army over extended periods.
• Spain exemplified a situation where large armies could starve, and smaller ones could be defeated.
• The geography also favored guerrilla warfare, a tactic at which the Spaniards excelled.

4. Provoked National Spirit:

• Napoleon's treachery sparked a strong national spirit among the Spanish people.
• He learned that a united populace could be more powerful than disciplined troops.
• This spirit was effectively sustained by figures like Wellington, whose endurance, political skill, and military leadership were factors Napoleon failed to account for.

Significance of the Peninsular War

• Napoleon's attempt to conquer Spain went beyond a mere failure; it marked the beginning of his downfall.
• He anticipated a quick victory but instead became embroiled in a prolonged and exhausting conflict.
• Resistance erupted across the nation, forcing Napoleon to maintain large armies in Spain, which weakened his efforts elsewhere and drained resources that were needed for more critical tasks.
• Furthermore, Napoleon's intervention in Spain ignited a surge of national sentiment throughout the region, facing him with determined opposition from the entire population.
• He realized that the Spanish nation was not synonymous with the Spanish government he had easily overthrown.
• The Spanish uprising inspired other nations to organize popular and national resistance against Napoleon, leading to his eventual retreat.
• The Peninsular War acted as a severe drain on Napoleon's strength at a time when he needed all his resources for other European challenges.
• Moreover, the Spanish insurrection provided England with an opportunity to effectively deploy its small land army, significantly aiding the resistance efforts.

The Revolt of Austria

• Inspired by the Spanish uprising, Austria sought to incite a national revolt in Germany.
• However, this attempt proved premature, and the Austrians faced a crushing defeat in 1809.
• As a consequence of their defeat, Austria was compelled to sign the Treaty of Schönbrunn, which imposed heavy indemnities and territorial cessions on the Polish, Alpine, and Adriatic frontiers.
• Additionally, the Austrian Emperor had to marry his daughter Maria Louisa to Napoleon, further solidifying Napoleon's power.

Napoleon's Campaign against Russia

Causes of Napoleon’s Rupture with Russia:

• Although Russia was an ally of Napoleon following the Peace of Tilsit, several factors strained this alliance and eventually led to its breakdown.
• The marriage alliance between Austria and Napoleon angered the Czar, and tensions escalated when Napoleon seized the duchy of Oldenburg, which belonged to the Czar’s brother-in-law.
• The Czar had always been wary of Napoleon's creation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. His suspicion turned into distrust when Napoleon expanded the Duchy by acquiring territory from Austria, raising fears that Napoleon aimed to restore Poland and promote Polish nationalism.
• Additionally, a rift was deepened by the Czar's refusal to tighten the economic blockade of England, which was causing significant financial strain on Russia.
• In 1810, the Czar modified his commitment to the Continental System, leading to a complete rupture with Napoleon, who could not tolerate any breach of the system designed to economically weaken England.

The Moscow Expedition:

• Napoleon anticipated that a decisive victory like Friedland would quickly bring Czar Alexander to negotiate. However, he was met with Russian forces that avoided direct confrontation.
• The Russians implemented a strategy of retreating while devastating the land, drawing the French deeper into a harsh and desolate territory.
• Despite his relentless pursuit and a victory at Borodino, Napoleon occupied Moscow in 1812 only to find the city abandoned and set ablaze by its inhabitants.
• This forced Napoleon to retreat, during which his army faced extreme hardships from hunger, exhaustion, and the brutal Russian winter, compounded by continuous guerrilla attacks.
• Napoleon ultimately abandoned his army and rushed back to Paris, with his Grand Army reduced to a mere fraction of its original size.
• This disastrous campaign severely weakened Napoleon's military power and emboldened Central European powers to resist his dominance, with Prussia being the first to rise against him.

Revival of Prussia

• After suffering a crushing defeat, Prussia remained under Napoleon’s strict control. However, her revival was sparked by the patriotic appeals of thinkers like Schiller and Fichte and the efforts of patriotic individuals like Baron Van Stein. Stein’s influence led to significant reforms, including the abolition of serfdom, the removal of rigid class distinctions, and the establishment of self-government in towns.
• Reforms in the army were also initiated. The old caste-based system was replaced with a system that allowed opportunity based on talent, similar to the French model. Despite Napoleon’s restrictions on the size of the Prussian army, a clever short-service system was devised to exceed these limits by quickly passing men through the ranks and into the reserve. These reforms rejuvenated the national spirit of the Prussians, which surged further with Napoleon’s disastrous campaign in Russia.

The War of Liberation, 1813

• Spurred by a strong national impulse, King Frederick William III of Prussia issued an “Appeal to my people,” calling for mobilization against Napoleon. The response was immediate and enthusiastic, transforming Prussia into a nation in arms. Berlin was recaptured from the French, and Russian forces supported insurrections in Hamburg while Prussian troops seized Dresden. Austria and Sweden joined the Allies, with England also offering support, leading to the formation of the Fourth Coalition against France.
• The Allies, with superior numbers, confronted Napoleon at Leipzig in a three-day battle known as the Battle of the Nations, overwhelming him in 1813. This defeat led to the collapse of Napoleon’s political structure in Germany. The Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved, Holland became independent, and the kingdom of Westphalia disappeared. Bavaria switched sides, joining the Allies, while Napoleon retreated across the Rhine.

Napoleon’s Abdication (1814)

• The Allies offered Napoleon peace based on France’s “natural boundaries” of the Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees, a favorable offer that secured France’s traditional foreign policy goals. However, Napoleon refused, leading the Allies to invade France from all directions. Despite being outnumbered by three larger armies, Napoleon’s generalship held the Allies at bay for nine weeks.
• The four major allied powers—England, Russia, Prussia, and Austria—formed the Treaty of Chaumont, pledging not to make separate peace with France and to continue the war until France was reduced to her ancient frontiers. Eventually, outnumbered and unable to resist longer, Napoleon abdicated on March 30, 1814, as the Allies entered Paris.
• He was exiled to the island of Elba by the Treaty of Fountainebleau, which also restored Louis XVIII to the French throne. The First Treaty of Paris returned France to the boundaries of 1792 and allowed her to regain most of her lost colonies, except Mauritius, Tobago, and St. Lucia. A congress was held in Vienna to settle European affairs, but disputes among the victors over spoils led to further tensions.

Napoleon’s Escape from Elba: The Hundred Days

• In February 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and landed near Cannes in France, where he was warmly welcomed by the people and joined by his old soldiers. Louis XVIII fled, and Napoleon reentered Paris, marking his brief return to power known as the Hundred Days. Upon hearing of Napoleon’s escape, the Allied powers set aside their differences and united against him, declaring him an outlaw.
• The Allies assembled two armies: one led by Duke of Wellington, composed of English, Dutch, Belgian, and Hanoverian troops, and another led by Prussian General Blücher. Napoleon’s only chance for success lay in a swift and decisive victory, but he was outnumbered.
• After being caught between the two armies, Napoleon faced defeat. The relentless pursuit by the Prussians turned his defeat into a rout in 1815. He fled to Paris, abdicated for the second time, and attempted to escape to America but surrendered to the captain of a British ship. He was taken prisoner and transported to St. Helena, where he died six years later, in 1821.

Causes of Napoleon’s Downfall

His inordinate ambition:

• The main reason for Napoleon’s downfall was his insatiable ambition, which blinded him to practical limits and pushed him to stretch his power beyond breaking point. His goal of establishing a universal empire was fraught with difficulties that his genius overlooked.

Weaknesses in his Empire:

• The empire he hastily built was weak and based on force, evoking hatred rather than loyalty. It depended solely on Napoleon’s life and fortunes, collapsing with his fall.

His mistakes:

• Other forces contributing to his downfall were mainly the result of his mistakes, which he did not foresee.

Continental System:

• His most serious blunder was the Continental System, which disrupted trade and caused distress, making his rule unpopular. To enforce it, he adopted aggressive policies that created many enemies.

His Spanish policy:

• Placing his brother on the Spanish throne provoked Spanish nationalism and undermined his power in Spain, Prussia, and Russia.
• Failure of his Russian expedition:
• The rupture of his alliance with Russia and the disastrous Moscow expedition shattered his Grand Army, encouraging other powers to unite against him.
• Persistent hostility from England and her naval supremacy also contributed to his downfall. Napoleon summarized the causes of his downfall as Spain, Pope, and Russia.

An Estimate of Napoleon

• Napoleon is regarded as one of history’s greatest conquerors and rulers, with a record of astounding victories reflecting his military genius.

His services to France:

• He reconstructed the government, introduced the Civil Code, and reconciled with the Pope, showing a clear understanding of France’s needs for stable governance. His reforms demonstrated that his military abilities were complemented by statesmanship.
• As a ruler, he was an enlightened despot, promoting religious toleration, national education, and social equality by opening careers to talent. His Civil Code secured justice and his strong government ensured political order.
• His services to Europe:
• Napoleon introduced new societal and legal ideas, along with reforms based on equality, wherever his power extended. He dismantled medieval distinctions, laying the foundation for a new social order in Europe and reducing the number of states in the Holy Roman Empire, paving the way for German unity.
• His rule in Italy fostered Italian nationalism. Thus, his empire was a blessing in disguise for many European countries.
• Estimating Napoleon is challenging due to differing opinions. Some admire him, while others view him as a tyrant. His achievements and career brilliance overshadow his faults.
• Historically, he represented a transition period, embodying the last of benevolent despots while being among the first modern statesmen.

Far-Reaching Results of the French Revolution

The French Revolution was not just a local event; it spread beyond France, bringing new ideas of social and political organization that eventually reshaped Europe. The people across Europe resonated with the principles of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, inspired by the example set by France.
The following ideas from the Revolution became formative principles in the 19th-century development of Europe:
Liberty:

• The cardinal idea of Liberty, expressed in the Declaration of Rights, made France the spokesperson for the human race and became a universal watchword for reformers and revolutionists. Personal and political liberty became a creed embraced by all.

Abolition of serfdom:

• Personal liberty meant the abolition of serfdom, a principle recognized across Europe, leading to the gradual enfranchisement of the peasantry from the grip of the landed aristocracy.

Popular government:

• Political liberty involved the abolition of exclusive political privileges and despotism, aligning closely with democracy or popular sovereignty. By the 19th century, most European states had popularly elected Parliaments with varying degrees of authority.

Abolition of privilege:

• The idea of Equality, which implied the abolition of privileges enjoyed by the upper classes, was infectious. The French Revolution’s example in establishing social equality influenced the growing social conscience and recognition of the interests of the masses.

Nationalism:

• The Revolution also bequeathed the idea of nationalism. The French initially were invincible in Europe due to national patriotism, but eventually, France was defeated by the same sentiment when other countries adopted similar nationalistic fervor.
• The history of 19th-century Europe is marked by the triumph of nationalism in countries like Belgium, Italy, Germany, and the Balkan Peninsula. The period since 1815 has been characterized by the growth of these ideas, which, despite a temporary absolutist reaction, gained universal recognition. The forces unleashed by the Revolution continue to shape the destinies of nations even today.

The Second Restoration of Bourbons

Following the Battle of Waterloo, Louis XVIII was restored to the French throne. Under the Second Peace of Paris, France agreed to pay a heavy war indemnity, maintain an allied army for five years, and restore works of art that Napoleon had taken from various countries.