Emergence of Nation State System | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Transition from Feudal System to Nation-States

• Before the rise of nation-states, Europe was governed by the feudal system, a decentralized form of governance characterized by the division of land among lords who exercised varying degrees of power over their territories. As this system gradually waned, nation-states began to emerge as the predominant political entities.
• The pivotal moment for the establishment of nation-states came after the Thirty Years’ War in Europe, culminating in the year 1648. The Peace of Westphalia, a series of treaties, was instrumental in shaping the modern political landscape. This treaty marked a significant shift by recognizing the sovereignty of individual states and introducing the principle of non-interference in the domestic affairs of other states, laying the groundwork for what became known as the Westphalian system.

The Westphalian System and the Nation-State

• The Westphalian system was crucial in establishing the nation-state as the dominant form of political organization in Europe. It provided the foundation for the modern international system by promoting the idea that states are sovereign entities with the authority to govern themselves without external interference.
• One of the key principles of the Westphalian system was the balance of power, which relied on the existence of clearly defined, centrally controlled, and independent entities, whether they were empires or nation-states. These entities had to recognize each other’s sovereignty and territorial boundaries for the system to function effectively. While the Westphalian system did not create the concept of the nation-state, it set the stage for its development by ensuring that the criteria for statehood—such as defined territory and governance—were met.
• Today, nation-states continue to play a central role in our lives, shaping our identities and how we view ourselves as citizens of our respective countries. The legacy of the Westphalian system remains relevant, influencing the way states interact and govern in the contemporary world.

Before the Nation State

• In Europe during the 18th century, the classic non-national states were multiethnic empires such as the Austrian Empire, the Kingdom of France (and its empire), the Kingdom of Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Portuguese Empire, the Spanish Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, the Dutch Empire, and smaller nations at what would now be called sub-state level.
• The multi-ethnic empire was an absolute monarchy ruled by a king, emperor, or sultan. The population belonged to many ethnic groups and spoke many languages. The empire was dominated by one ethnic group, whose language was usually the language of public administration. The ruling dynasty was usually, but not always, from that dominant group.

Chinese Dynasties:

• This type of state is not specifically European; such empires existed in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Chinese dynasties, such as the Tang dynasty, the Yuan dynasty, and the Qing dynasty, were all multiethnic regimes governed by a ruling ethnic group. In these examples, the ruling ethnic groups were the Han Chinese, Mongols, and Manchus, respectively.

Muslim World:

• In the Muslim world, immediately after Muhammad's death in 632, Caliphates were established. Caliphates were Islamic states led by a political-religious successor to Muhammad. These polities evolved into multi-ethnic transnational empires. The Ottoman sultan, Selim I (1512–1520), reclaimed the title of caliph, which had been disputed among various rulers and “shadow caliphs” since the Mongols sacked Baghdad and killed the last Abbasid Caliph in 1258. The Ottoman Caliphate was abolished by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924 as part of Atatürk’s Reforms.

Holy Roman Empire:

• The Holy Roman Empire was a limited elective monarchy composed of hundreds of state-like entities. Some smaller European states were not very ethnically diverse but were also dynastic states ruled by a royal house. Their territory could expand through royal intermarriage or merge with another state when the dynasty merged.
• In some parts of Europe, notably Germany, minimal territorial units existed. These were recognized by their neighbors as independent and had their own government and laws. Some were ruled by princes or other hereditary rulers, while others were governed by bishops or abbots. Because they were so small, these units often lacked a separate language or culture; their inhabitants shared the language of the surrounding region.
• Some of these states were overthrown by nationalist uprisings in the 19th century. Liberal ideas of free trade played a role in German unification, which was preceded by a customs union called the Zollverein. The Austro-Prussian War and the German alliances in the Franco-Prussian War were decisive in the unification process. The Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire disintegrated after the First World War, and the Russian Empire became the Soviet Union following the Russian Civil War.
• A few of the smaller states survived, including the independent principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, Monaco, and the Republic of San Marino. Vatican City is a special case; all of the larger Papal States except for Vatican City were occupied and absorbed by Italy by 1870. The resulting Roman Question was resolved with the rise of the modern state under the 1929 Lateran treaties between Italy and the Holy See.

Causes of the Emergence of Nation-States

The Thirty Years' War and the Peace of Westphalia were crucial in the rise of nation-states.

The Thirty Years' War (1614-1648):

• It was the most deadly war up to World War I, with an estimated 8 to 12 million deaths due to fighting, famine, and plague.
• The war started when the Holy Roman Emperor tried to impose Catholicism on all territories, conflicting with the Protestant north, which had religious freedom since the Peace of Augsburg (1556).

Transition from Religious to Political Conflict:

• The war shifted from a religious to a political struggle, with Kingdoms allying across religious lines to prevent any one kingdom from gaining too much power.

The Peace of Westphalia (1648):

• The war ended with a series of treaties that established key principles for nation-states:
• Equality of Kingdoms: All kingdoms at the meeting were considered equal.
• Independence: Each country was sovereign and governed itself without outside interference.
• Religious Choice: Sovereigns could determine their kingdom's religion without outside involvement.

Foundation of Nation-State Concepts:

• The Peace of Westphalia laid the groundwork for the nation-state by establishing the importance of equality and independence among kingdoms.
• This meant that each country had the right to govern itself without interference from others.

Impact of the Emergence of Nation States

• Nation-states significantly altered human history by establishing borders and fostering a sense of kinship among people within those borders, leading to the rise of nationalism.
• Nationalism is the idea of identifying with and supporting one's country, often with a narrow definition of who qualifies as a citizen.
• These concepts of nation-states and nationalism partly contributed to the causes of the World Wars.
• Our modern understanding of citizenship is derived from the current model of nation-states.