Comparison between Italian Unification and German Unification | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Italian Unification and German Unification

• Italian unification and German unification both occurred during the years 1870 and 1871.
• These two events show many similarities and dissimilarities.
• Both unifications aimed to bring together various states and regions into a single nation.
• The Italian unification was led by figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi and Count Cavour.
• The German unification was primarily driven by Otto von Bismarck.
• In Italy, unification involved a mix of military actions and diplomatic efforts.
• In Germany, Bismarck used a strategy known as Realpolitik, which focused on practical solutions and power politics.
• Both processes faced opposition from other European powers, but the outcomes were quite different.
• After unification, Italy struggled with political instability and regional differences.
• Germany, on the other hand, quickly became a major industrial power and established a strong national identity.

Similarities between German and Italian Unification

1. Timing and Context: Both the German and Italian unifications occurred around the same time, in 1870/71. They were both characterized by a lack of unity among smaller states, with each state being jealous of the others.
2. Influence of French Revolutions: Both unifications were influenced by the French Revolutions of 1789, 1830, and 1848, which brought them closer to achieving unity. Interestingly, in both cases, the task of unification was completed after the downfall of France.
3. Overcoming Austrian Resistance: Both Italy and Germany had to overcome the resistance of Austria in their paths to unification.

Cultural Factors:

• Italy: Italy was divided into various states ruled by different kings. However, the Italians shared a common language and a pride in their history, particularly the glory of the Roman Empire. This shared cultural background played a crucial role in uniting the Italians.
• Germany: Similarly, Germany was divided into many states, but the people shared a common language and history, which helped to unite them despite the divisions.

One Leading State:

• Germany: In Germany, all states were unified under Prussia, which had the strongest military power.
• Italy: In Italy, the Kingdom of Sardinia, led by Count Cavour, was the leading power in the unification process and eventually became the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

Leadership of Certain Individuals:

• Germany: In Germany, Otto von Bismarck, appointed as the Chancellor of Prussia by King Wilhelm I in 1862, played a crucial role in the unification process. He believed in Realpolitik and famously used the phrase “Blood and iron” to describe his foreign policy, seeing war as the solution to German unification. His leadership was instrumental in Germany's victories in the 1864 Schleswig-Holstein War, the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, and the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, all of which contributed to German unification.
• Italy: In Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini, Giuseppe Garibaldi, and Count Cavour are considered the three main architects of unification. Cavour, appointed as Prime Minister by King Victor Emmanuel II in 1852, implemented a tough Realpolitik approach similar to Bismarck’s. He played a key role in organizing the new system of Italy after unification.

Impact of Napoleon:

• German and Italian Unification: Both German and Italian unifications shared the commonality that Napoleon ignited feelings of nationalism and liberalism in both countries. The ideas stemming from the French Revolution served as the foundation for nationalism in the 19th century, and it was Napoleon who disseminated these ideas across Europe.
• Napoleonic Code and Unity: Moreover, the Napoleonic Code significantly influenced politicians in both regions. Napoleon made the Germans aware of the advantages of unity by diminishing the power of landowners, enhancing workers’ conditions, and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. He also established the Confederation of the Rhine, which reduced the number of states, facilitating trade.
• Opposition to Napoleon: Furthermore, many Germans opposed Napoleon’s rule, and the Prussians felt humiliated militarily. This opposition fueled nationalism and patriotism among the German populace. A similar sentiment was observed in Italy, where Napoleon sparked nationalism and liberalism.

Congress of Vienna:

• German Confederation: The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), which addressed European affairs post-Napoleonic wars, had a significant impact on nationalism in both Germany and Italy. The German Confederation was established as a result of the Congress of Vienna; however, it was under Austrian control. This led many German liberals and patriots to act against the Congress of Vienna and Austria’s dominance.
• Division of Italy: In Italy, the Congress of Vienna re-divided the country into numerous states, which frustrated Italian patriots. In both Germany and Italy, liberals and nationalists opposed the Congress of Vienna and fought for unity, ultimately leading to significant revolutions by 1848.

Dissimilarities between Italian and German Unification

In Favor of Italy

Geography:

• In Italy, the geographical features such as high mountains and seas made it easier to set borders during unification.
• In contrast, Germany faced challenges in establishing geographical borders due to its endless plains and limited access to the sea.

Internal Conflict About Ways of Unification:

• Italy experienced no conflicts regarding the method of unification, with a clear consensus on which states should be unified.
• Germany, however, faced a conflict between Grobdeutsche(Greater Germany) and Kleindeutsche(Lesser Germany).
• Grobdeutsche advocated for the inclusion of all German-speaking states, including Austria, while Kleindeutsche favored unifying only northern German states, excluding Austria.
• This conflict persisted until Prussia unified all German-speaking states except Austria.

Leadership Background:

• Cavour was initially focused on Italian interests, while Bismarck prioritized Prussian interests before considering a unified Germany.
• Bismarck aimed to strengthen Prussia within Germany, whereas Cavour sought to unify Italy.

Austrian Influence:

• Austria had a much deeper historical connection with Germany than with Italy, making its expulsion from Germany more challenging.
• Austria's long-standing influence in Germany complicated the unification process compared to Italy.

Support and Challenges:

• Cavour received assistance from figures like Garibaldi and Mazzini, while Bismarck operated without similar support.
• Bismarck faced stronger resistance than Cavour, as German particularism was more deeply rooted than Italian regionalism.
• Bismarck also encountered greater difficulties in securing the approval of his King compared to Cavour.

In Favor of Germany

Economic Factors:

• In Germany, Prussia's status was elevated by the success of the Zollverein, a customs union established in 1834.
• The Zollverein highlighted the economic benefits of unification, paving the way for German unity.
• Italy, on the other hand, lacked a similar economic union like the Zollverein.
• While Cavour implemented some economic policies in Piedmont, there was no widespread economic integration in Italy comparable to Germany's Zollverein.

Austrian Control:

• In Italy, Austria exerted control over a significant portion of the territory.
• In Germany, Austria was only the formal head of the German Confederation, with less direct control over the states.

Division and Organization:

• Italy was fragmented into numerous smaller states, many of which were under foreign rule.
• In contrast, Germany did not have foreign rulers to overthrow, and there was no issue with the Pope as in Italy.

Differences in Strength and Foreign Intervention:

• Bismarck and Cavour had similar goals of unifying their respective countries but pursued them through different means.
• Bismarck utilized aggression and force, known as the Blood and Iron Policy, leveraging Prussia's strength.
• Cavour, on the other hand, relied on diplomacy and moderation due to Piedmont's weaker position.
• Cavour had to seek foreign aid to achieve Italian unity, forming an alliance with France to oust the Austrians from Italy.
• Later, Cavour used the Franco-Prussian War to remove the French from Rome.
• In Germany, Bismarck and Prussia's military power were the primary forces behind unification, with no foreign intervention involved.

Comparison of Methods: Cavour vs. Bismarck in Unification

• Bismarck and Cavour, in their pursuit of unifying Germany and Italy respectively, were both practitioners of what Bismarck termed realpolitik.
• Realpolitik is a political approach that involves the use of ruthless and often violent means to achieve political objectives. Bismarck encapsulated this philosophy in his famous declaration that the pressing issues of the time are resolved not through speeches and majority votes, but through blood and iron 

Similar Goals, Different Approaches:

Despite sharing the same goal of unification, Bismarck and Cavour employed different methods to achieve their aims. Bismarck favored aggression and force, while Cavour relied on diplomacy, moderation, and subtlety.

Cavour's Diplomatic Strategy

• Cavour’s state of Piedmont was not in a position to unify Italy through military force. Therefore, he resorted to political deals with stronger countries.
• For instance, he successfully used diplomacy to gain the support of Napoleon III of France for his unification efforts.

Bismarck's Militaristic Approach:

• Bismarck, on the other hand, led a strong Prussia that was capable of using war to unify Germany.
• He employed military conflict to compel other German states to join Prussia and later engaged in war with France to complete his vision of Germany.

Bismarck's Methods and Goals:

• Bismarck was indifferent to public opinion and was willing to use military force to achieve his objectives.
• His main goal was to unify Germany under Prussian leadership and to exclude Austria from the new German Empire.
• He provoked a war with Austria after securing France’s neutrality and later fought France in the Franco-Prussian War.
• After the war, Bismarck humiliated Napoleon III and had Frederick Wilhelm I crowned Emperor of Germany at Versailles, establishing the German Empire with Bismarck as its first chancellor.

Cavour vs. Bismarck: Ideological Differences:

• Cavour was more liberal, utilizing plebiscites to gain support, while Bismarck was reactionary and had a disdain for parliaments.
• Cavour appealed to Piedmont’s liberalism and enlightenment ideals to attract other Italian states, whereas Bismarck focused on Prussian power over liberal principles.

Divergent Identities and Challenges:

• Cavour identified first as an Italian, then as a Sardinian, while Bismarck was initially Prussian before becoming German.
• Bismarck faced a more ingrained challenge in German particularism compared to Cavour’s efforts in Italy.
• Cavour benefited from the support of figures like Garibaldi and Mazzini, whereas Bismarck had no such allies.
• Bismarck also encountered greater difficulties in securing the approval of his King compared to Cavour’s circumstances.