Chinese Revolution | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction - Chinese Revolution

Early History:

• China has a long history of being united, and since the mid-1600s, it was ruled by the Manchu dynasty, also known as the Ch’ing dynasty. 

19th Century Challenges:

•  In the 1840s, China faced a difficult period marked by foreign interference, civil war, and disintegration. This troubled era continued until the communist victory in 1949. 

Fall of the Qing Dynasty:

•  The last emperor of China was overthrown in 1911, leading to the proclamation of a republic. 

Warlord Era (1916-1928):

•  The period from 1916 to 1928 is known as the Warlord Era, characterized by chaos as various generals seized control of different provinces. 

Rise of the Kuomintang (KMT):

•  The Kuomintang (KMT), or Nationalists, led by Dr. Sun Yat-sen and later by General Chiang Kai-shek, attempted to govern China and control the warring generals. 

Chinese Communist Party (CCP):

•  The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921 and initially cooperated with the KMT to fight against the warlords. 

Split Between KMT and CCP:

•  As the KMT gained control over more of China, it believed it could operate without the communists and tried to eliminate them. 
•  The CCP, under Mao Zedong, responded vigorously, leading to the famous Long March (1934-1935), where they traveled 6,000 miles to establish a new base in northern China. 

Civil War and Japanese Interference:

•  The civil war continued, complicated by Japanese interference, which escalated into a full-scale invasion in 1937. 

After World War II:

•  After Japan’s defeat in World War II and its withdrawal from China, the KMT and CCP resumed their conflict for control of the country. 
•  Chiang Kai-shek received support from the United States, but in 1949, Mao Zedong and the communists emerged victorious. 

 Establishment of Communist Rule:

•  Chiang and his supporters fled to Taiwan (Formosa), while Mao quickly established control over all of China. 
•  Mao Zedong remained the leader of China until his death in 1976. 

Revolution and the Warlord Era 

1. Early Nineteenth Century;

•  China was largely isolated from the world, experiencing a period of quiet and stability. 
•  There were no significant changes or disruptions in daily life. 

2. Mid-Nineteenth Century Challenges:

•  China faced multiple crises due to a rapid population increase during the peaceful period. 
•  The growing population strained food production, leading to poverty and desperation among peasants. 
•  Many peasants resorted to robbery and banditry to survive. 

3. Foreign Intervention:

•  The chaos in China attracted foreign powers, particularly Europeans, who sought trading opportunities. 
•  The British were the first to intervene militarily, initiating the Opium Wars (1839-42) against China. 

Opium Wars Overview:

•  The Opium Wars were two conflicts in the mid-19th century between Western countries and the Qing dynasty, which ruled China from 1644 to 1912. 
•  The First Opium War (1839–42) was fought between China and Britain, while the Second Opium War (1856–60), also known as the Arrow War, involved Britain and France against China. 
•  In both wars, foreign powers emerged victorious, gaining commercial privileges and legal and territorial concessions in China. 
•  These conflicts marked the beginning of an era of unequal treaties and infringements on Qing sovereignty, contributing to the dynasty's weakening and eventual downfall in favor of a republican China in the early 20th century. 

 First Opium War (1839–42):

•  The Opium Wars were triggered by China's efforts to suppress the opium trade. 
•  Foreign traders, primarily British, had been illegally exporting opium from India to China since the 18th century, with the trade escalating significantly from around 1820, disrupting the trade balance in favor of China. 
•  The widespread addiction in China caused severe social and economic turmoil. 
•  In March 1839, the Chinese government confiscated and destroyed over 1,400 tons of opium stored by British merchants in Canton (Guangzhou). 
•  Tensions escalated further when drunken British sailors killed a Chinese villager, leading the British government to refuse to hand over the accused to Chinese courts. 
•  Hostilities erupted when British warships attacked a Chinese blockade in the Pearl River estuary, leading to the occupation of Hong Kong in May 1841. Subsequent British campaigns successfully defeated Qing forces, culminating in the capture of Nanjing (Nanking) in August 1842, effectively ending the conflict. 

Treaty of Nanjing (1842):

•  Following the First Opium War, peace negotiations led to the Treaty of Nanjing on August 29, 1842. 
•  Key provisions included: 
•  China agreeing to pay a substantial indemnity to Britain. 
•  Ceding Hong Kong Island to Britain. 
•  Expanding the number of treaty ports for British trade and residence from one (Canton) to five, with Shanghai among the new ports. 

British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue (1843):

•  Signed on October 8, 1843, this treaty granted British citizens extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British courts) and most-favoured-nation status (ensuring Britain received any rights granted to other foreign countries in China). 
•  Other Western countries quickly sought and obtained similar privileges in China. 

Qing Dynasty's Response:

•  After its defeat in the First Opium War, the Qing court struggled to contain foreign intrusions. 
•  Attempts to reform traditional governance were hampered by a conservative court culture, with Manchu rulers reluctant to grant too much power to the Han Chinese majority. 
•  As traditional Manchu armies proved ineffective in subsequent conflicts, the Qing court increasingly relied on local Han armies for military support. 

Second Opium War (1856-1860):

• The Second Opium War, also known as the Arrow War, occurred in the mid-1850s while the Qing government was focused on suppressing the Taiping Rebellion (1850–64). 
• The British, seeking to expand their trading rights in China, found a pretext to renew hostilities. 
•  In October 1856, British officials accused Chinese authorities of mistreating the British-registered ship Arrow, leading to increased tensions and hostilities. 
•  The French joined the British in the military campaign, citing the murder of a French missionary as a justification. 
•  Allied forces captured Canton, forcing the Chinese into negotiations and leading to the treaties of Tianjin in 1858. 

 Treaties of Tianjin (1858):

•  The treaties of Tianjin, signed in June 1858, included provisions for: 
•  Residence in Beijing for foreign envoys. 
•  Opening several new ports to Western trade and residence. 
•  Granting foreigners the right to travel in the interior of China. 
•  Freedom of movement for Christian missionaries. 
•  The importation of opium was legalized in further negotiations in Shanghai later that year. 

Self-Strengthening Movement (1861 onwards):

•  Following the Second Opium War, the Qing dynasty attempted to modernize by adopting certain Western technologies through the Self-Strengthening Movement, which began in 1861. 
•  This period marked efforts to strengthen the military and improve various aspects of governance and industry. 

Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864):

•  The Taiping Rebellion was a widespread uprising in southern China, driven by a mix of Christian religious beliefs and political reform ideas. 
•  The movement aimed to establish a "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace" (Taiping tianguo). 
•  The rebellion was eventually quashed, not by the Qing dynasty's forces, but by newly-formed regional armies. 
•  The failure of government forces during the rebellion significantly weakened the Qing dynasty's authority. 
•  It left the dynasty reliant on regional armies, which they could not control, initiating a process that led to provincial autonomy and the Warlord Era (1916-1928). 

First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895):

•  The First Sino-Japanese War marked Japan's emergence as a major world power and highlighted the weaknesses of the Chinese empire. 
•  The conflict stemmed from a struggle for supremacy in Korea, a region of strategic importance to both countries. 
•  In 1875, Japan forced Korea to open itself to foreign trade, particularly with Japan, and to declare its independence from China in foreign relations. 
•  Japan aligned itself with reformist elements in the Korean government, while China supported conservative officials. 
•  Tensions escalated, leading to the 1894 war after a series of provocations, including the assassination of a pro-Japanese Korean leader by Chinese forces. 
•  Despite expectations of a Chinese victory due to its larger forces, Japan's superior modernization and preparation led to swift victories on land and sea. 
•  By March 1895, Japan had invaded Shandong province and Manchuria, forcing China to sue for peace. 

Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895):

•  The Treaty of Shimonoseki ended the First Sino-Japanese War with significant concessions from China to Japan. 
•  Key provisions included: 
•  China recognizing Korea's independence. 
•  Ceding Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan. 
•  China agreeing to pay a large indemnity and granting Japan trading privileges on Chinese territory. 
•  The treaty was later modified due to Russian concerns about Japanese expansion, leading to Japan returning the Liaodong Peninsula to China. 
•  The war's outcome encouraged further demands from Western powers and triggered a reform movement in China aimed at government renovation and revolutionary activities against the Qing dynasty. 

Hundred Days’ Reform (1898):

•  The Hundred Days’ Reform was an imperial initiative aimed at renovating China’s state and social system following its defeat in the Sino-Japanese War and the subsequent rush for concessions by Western imperialist powers. 
•  The movement was spurred by a series of reform clubs advocating Western-style reforms and the rejection of the peace treaty with Japan. 
•  A group of conservative reformers within official circles, led by Zhang Zhidong, called for Western-style industrialization while preserving China’s cultural heritage. 
•  The Qing government began to seriously consider reform, leading to the issuance of over 40 edicts by the emperor aimed at transforming various aspects of Chinese society, including education, governance, and military reforms. 
•  However, the movement was short-lived as conservative forces rallied behind the empress dowager Cixi, who carried out a coup d’état, imprisoning the emperor and executing several reformers. 
•  Although some moderate reforms were retained, most of the edicts were repealed and never enacted. 

Boxer Rebellion (1900):

•  The Boxer Rebellion was a peasant uprising in 1900 aimed at driving foreigners out of China. 
•  The group, known as the Yihequan or "Righteous and Harmonious Fists," believed that certain boxing rituals made them invulnerable to bullets. 
•  Initially opposed to the Qing dynasty, the Boxers were persuaded to unite with the government to expel foreigners. 
•  The empress dowager and Qing officials supported the Boxers, believing in their invulnerability, and encouraged their activities against foreigners and Chinese Christians. 
•  The Boxers escalated their attacks, leading to the empress dowager ordering the killing of all foreigners. 
•  An international force intervened, capturing Beijing and relieving besieged foreigners. 
•  The Qing dynasty was forced to sign a protocol in September 1901, providing reparations to foreign powers and losing more territory. 
•  The rebellion highlighted China's weakened state and increased foreign control. 
•  The Qing dynasty's defeat and the subsequent Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) further exposed China's vulnerabilities and spurred internal reform movements. 
•  Young Chinese educated abroad returned with radical ideas for overthrowing the Manchu dynasty and modernizing China, influencing future revolutionary activities. 

(b) Revolution of 1911 or Xinhai Revolution or Double Ten Revolution:

•  The Chinese Revolution (1911-12) was a significant uprising that led to the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, China's last imperial rule, and the establishment of the Republic of China (ROC). 
•  The revolution is referred to as "Xinhai" because it occurred in 1911, the year of the Xinhai in the Chinese calendar. 
•  Initially, the Qing government responded to the rising radical ideas by introducing various reforms, promising democratic changes, and setting up elected provincial assemblies. 
•  However, these efforts backfired, as they only pushed the provinces further away from the central government, which had become extremely unpopular. 
•  Throughout the 19th century, the Qing dynasty had been in decline, and after the death of the empress dowager Cixi in 1908, it lost its last capable leader. 
•  In 1911, the young emperor Puyi was unable to provide strong leadership, and the regency that followed was incompetent, further weakening the government. 
•  The dynasty's unsuccessful encounters with foreign powers had not only weakened its authority but also that of the entire government machinery. 
•  The revolution was primarily a response to the Qing state's decline, which had shown itself unable to modernize effectively and deal

The Kuomintang, Dr. Sun Yat-sen, and Chiang Kai-shek 

(a) The Kuomintang (KMT) 

•  The primary hope for a united China rested with the  Kuomintang (KMT),  or National People’s Party, established in 1912 by  Dr. Sun Yat-sen. 
•  Between 1905 and 1912, Sun Yat-sen developed a political movement known as the  Revolutionary Alliance  to address the disintegration of China. 
•  Sun Yat-sen  , trained as a doctor in  Hawaii and Hong Kong,  was disheartened by China’s condition and aimed to create a modern, united, and democratic state. 
•  After the  1911 revolution  , he returned to China and established a government in  Canton  (now Guangzhou) in southern China in 1917, but his influence was limited. 
•  The KMT was not a communist party but was open to cooperating with the communists. It organized itself along communist lines and built its own army. 
•  Sun Yat-sen  outlined his goals in the  Three Principles: 
•  Nationalism:  To eliminate foreign influence and strengthen China. 
•  Democracy:  To establish self-governance by the people, once they were educated for it. 
•  Land reform:  Vaguely promoting economic development and land redistribution to peasants without confiscating landlords’ property. 
•  Sun’s Principles  became the foundation for both the KMT and the Communist Party, despite differing interpretations of democracy and welfare. 
•  Sun Yat-sen  was respected as a revolutionary leader, but his death in 1925 left the KMT struggling to implement his principles due to its reliance on warlord alliances and lack of military strength. 
•  He was a unifying figure in post-imperial China and is unique for being revered by both Communist and Nationalist factions. 

(b) Chiang Kai-shek 

•  General Chiang Kai-shek  took over the KMT after  Sun Yat-sen's  death. He had been trained in the military in Japan and was a strong nationalist, which led him to join the KMT. 
•  At this time, the new Soviet government in Russia was helping the KMT, hoping for a friendly relationship with Nationalist China. 
•  In  1923  ,  Chiang  went to  Moscow  to learn about the Communist Party and the Red Army. The next year, he became the head of a military academy near  Canton  (now Guangzhou), set up with Russian support to train KMT army officers. 
•  Despite his Russian connections,  Chiang  was not a communist. He was actually more right-wing than  Sun Yat-sen  and grew increasingly anti-communist, aligning more with businessmen and landowners. 
•  After becoming the KMT leader,  Chiang  removed left-wing members from leadership positions in the party but initially maintained the KMT’s alliance with the communists. 

Actions against warlords: 

•  In  1926  ,  Chiang  launched the  Northern March  to eliminate the warlords in central and northern China. 
•  Starting from Canton, the KMT and the communists captured  Hankow  ,  Shanghai  , and  Nanking  by  1927  , with  Beijing  taken in  1928  . 
•  Chiang’s  success was largely due to significant local support from peasants attracted by the communists’ land promises. The capture of  Shanghai  was aided by an uprising of industrial workers organized by  Zhou En-lai  , a KMT member and communist. 

Actions against communists: 

•  In  1927  ,  Chiang  perceived the communists as a growing threat due to their increasing power and influence. 
•  Areas under communist control were marked by attacks on landlords and land seizures, raising concerns about their radicalism. 
•  Chiang  decided it was time to eliminate this uncomfortable alliance. 
•  All communists were expelled from the KMT, and a brutal  “purification movement”  was initiated, resulting in the massacre of thousands of communists, trade union leaders, and peasant leaders. 
•  This campaign effectively checked the communists, brought the warlords under control, and established  Chiang  as the military and political leader of China. 

 Disappointment of the Kuomintang government: 

•  Despite achieving  Sun Yat-sen's  first principle of nationalism, the Kuomintang government under  Chiang Kai-shek  was a disappointment to most Chinese people. 
•  The government relied on the support of wealthy landowners, which hindered progress towards  democracy  and  land reform  . 
•  There was some limited improvement in building more schools and roads, but significant reforms were lacking. 

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) 

•  Initially, the CCP consisted mainly of intellectuals with little military power, which is why it was willing to collaborate with the KMT. 
•  Leaders like  Mao Zedong  and  Zhou Enlai  joined the KMT to strengthen and infiltrate the party. 
•  The peak of this cooperation was during the Nationalist Revolution, culminating in the  Northern Expedition  under Chiang Kai-shek in 1926, aimed at unifying China by defeating the Beiyang government and local warlords. 
•  Chiang  achieved significant victories, unifying about half of China, ending the Warlord Era, and establishing the Nanjing government. 
•  However, during the expedition,  Chiang  turned against the communists, leading to the  Shanghai Massacre  and the formal split between the KMT and CCP. 

End of Cooperation between KMT and CCP: 

•  Chiang Kai-shek’s  victory marked the end of cooperation between the KMT and CCP. 
•  The split was largely attributed to CCP radicalism, which alarmed wealthy industrialists in  Shanghai  . 
•  Wealthy industrialists  offered to support  Chiang  in exchange for breaking ties with Moscow, leading to Chiang’s crackdown on communists. 
•  In April  1927  , during the KMT-led effort to capture  Shanghai  , communist-led labor unions attempted to seize control, prompting  Chiang  to order a massacre of communists. 
•  This event, known as the  “Shanghai Massacre,”  marked a turning point in the KMT-CCP relationship. 
•  In April 1927, KMT leaders declared a National Government in Nanjing and banned the CCP. 
•  The CCP attempted several uprisings in 1927, but these efforts failed. 
•  During this period, the KMT represented national unification and goals, while the CCP was unable to challenge its dominance. 
•  Chiang Kai-shek’s  power consolidation was interrupted by the Japanese invasion in  1937  , which forced him to relocate to  Chungking  (Chongqing) and limit military actions against Japan until the war’s end. 

Period between 1928-1935:

•  KMT, under  Chiang  , continued efforts to unify China, extending control up to the  Yangtze River  and beyond. 
•  In  1931  , Japan invaded  Manchuria  , establishing it as a puppet state named  Manchukuo  , with former Emperor  Puyi  as a puppet ruler. 
•  By  1936  , KMT exerted loose control over two-thirds of China. 
•  However, peasants experienced little change beyond the national flag. 
•  Warlords loosely allied with  Chiang  continued to rule large areas, and there was no land reform. 
•  Intellectuals grew disenchanted with  Chiang  by the end of this period due to the lack of democratic reforms. 
•  Chiang  appeared to favor his own dictatorship and admired fascism as a government model. 
•  Meanwhile,  Mao Zedong  rebuilt the communist movement in  Jiangxi  , and official party leaders loyal to Moscow went into hiding in  Shanghai  until  1930  . 

Emergence of Mao and his policies: 

•  Mao Zedong  , present at the founding of the CCP, was born in  Hunan province  in 1893 to a prosperous peasant family. After working on the land, he trained as a teacher and moved to  Beijing  to work at a university library, a hub for Marxist studies. 
•  Returning to  Hunan  , he gained a reputation for organizing trade unions and peasant associations. His essay on physical education in 1917 criticized passive Confucianism, advocating for physical strength, violence, and anger, while promoting women’s rights and opposing arranged marriages. These views reflected his determination to fight for his beliefs. 
•  After the KMT-CCP split,  Mao  shifted the Party’s focus to gaining mass support among peasants instead of attempting to seize industrial towns, where previous insurrections had failed due to KMT strength. In  1931  , Mao was elected chairman of the Party’s Central Executive Committee, gradually establishing himself as the leader of Chinese communism. 
•  Additionally, Mao developed the strategy of operating from a stable base area and employing guerrilla tactics to harass government troops. These tactics, rooted in traditional Chinese military strategy that Mao was familiar with, would become central to the eventual victory of his forces over Chiang. 
•  Equally important was the implementation of land reform in the areas under communist control in southern Jiangxi. This involved distributing land more equally, with landlords and richer peasants receiving less. Although some landlords and rich peasants retained more land in exchange for supporting the communists, overall, the land reform garnered solid support from peasants, for whom it was a crucial issue. 
•  Chinese Soviet Republic or Jiangxi Soviet (1931-34):  Mao emerged as the leading spokesman for his policies. They were embodied in the Chinese Soviet Republic, known also as the Jiangxi Soviet, which was proclaimed in 1931 and existed from 1931-34. On 7 November 1931 the first All-China Congress of Soviets was held there. These developments took place independently of Moscow. Mao Zedong was both CSR state chairman and prime minister; he led the state and its government. Mao’s tenure as head of a “small state within a state” gave him experience in mobile warfare and peasant organization; this experience helped him accomplish the Communist reunification of China during the late 1940s. Mao and his supporters spent most of their energies on survival as Kuomintang (KMT)’s National Revolutionary Army under Chiang carried out five ‘extermination campaigns’ against them

The Civil War and Communist Victory, 1949 

China and the Second World War 

•  At the onset of the war, Chiang Kai-shek faced a difficult choice. China had been in a state of undeclared war with Japan since 1937. However, he had a deep admiration for Germany, Japan’s ally, and its military tradition. 
•  It was only after Germany's defeat at Stalingrad in 1942-43 that Chiang committed China to the Allied side. 

Strained Relations with the USSR: 

•  Relations between China and the USSR were tense due to Chiang's campaigns against the communists. As a result, Stalin refused to participate in any meetings that included Chiang. 

Support from the USA and Britain: 

•  In January 1943, the USA, Britain, and other states renounced their territorial rights and concessions in China, promising to return Manchuria and Formosa to China after the war. 
•  This was significant because it marked China being treated as an equal among great powers and promised a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council. 

Japanese Offensive: 

•  In response to these developments, the Japanese launched an offensive, moving troops from Manchuria and cutting off Southeast China from the interior. 
•  The Nationalist forces were disorganized and ineffective in repelling the Japanese advance. 

Chinese Contribution to Japan's Defeat: 

•  Although disorganized, the Chinese forces played a crucial role by tying down hundreds of thousands of Japanese troops in China, which was a sideshow for Japan. 
•  This contributed to Japan's eventual defeat, especially with the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. 

Aftermath of the War: 

•  After Japan's surrender, the KMT (Kuomintang) and the CCP (Chinese Communist Party) were left to fight for control of China. 
•  Initially, many, especially in the USA, believed Chiang and the KMT would prevail. 

American Support and Soviet Influence: 

•  The USA supported the KMT in reclaiming areas occupied by the Japanese, except for Manchuria, which the Russians had captured. 
•  In Manchuria, the Russians obstructed the KMT and allowed CCP guerrillas to gain a foothold. 

Rise of the Communist Forces: 

•  By 1948, the communist forces had grown strong enough to engage the KMT directly, marking a shift from guerrilla tactics to conventional warfare. 
•  The KMT's armies began to disintegrate under the pressure. 

KMT's Declining Support: 

•  The KMT, under Chiang, relied on fortified garrisons, but these were soon surrounded by communist forces. 
•  Traditional supporters of the KMT, like merchants and civil servants, became disillusioned due to rampant inflation and looked towards the CCP for solutions. 

Chiang's Tactical Mistakes: 

•  Chiang made critical errors, such as refusing to order strategic retreats, leading to the encirclement and surrender of his forces in key cities like Beijing and Shanghai. 

Communist Victory: 

•  In January 1949, the communists captured Beijing, and later that year, Chiang and his remaining forces fled to Taiwan (Formosa). 
•  On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People’s Republic of China from Tiananmen Square in Beijing, becoming both Chairman of the CCP and President of the new republic. 

Post-Revolution Developments: 

•  In December 1949, Chiang declared Taipei, Taiwan, the temporary capital of his government, continuing to claim legitimacy over all of China. 
•  The PRC government, under Mao, called for the unification of all China. 

Korean War and Taiwan Straits: 

•  The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 prompted the American government to position its fleet in the Taiwan Straits, preventing direct conflict between the PRC and Chiang's government in Taiwan. 

Shock to the USA: 

•  The communist victory in China surprised U.S. public opinion, which had been led to believe in Chiang's heroism during the war. 
•  The simultaneous Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe and other events marked the beginning of the Cold War, leading U.S. opinion to view the Chinese revolution as a Soviet-directed plot against American interests. 

Reasons for the Success of the Chinese Revolution in 1949:

•  KMT's Corruption and Inefficiency:  The Nationalists were corrupt and ignored the people's needs. Under Chiang Kai-shek, they focused on rapid industrialization that only benefited the middle and upper classes, angering the majority of the working population. 
•  Peasant Exploitation:  Starved peasants were heavily taxed to pay for foreign debts, worsening their plight and fueling discontent. 
•  Rise of Pro-Communist Intellectuals:  The suffering of the common people and the successful establishment of Soviet Communism led to the emergence of pro-Communist intellectuals who viewed the KMT as greedy and selfish, leaving the masses in starvation. 
•  Propaganda and the Long March:  The Communists effectively used the Long March as propaganda, winning the hearts of many Chinese. 
•  Persecution of Communist Intellectuals:  The KMT's persecution of Communist intellectuals ensured their enmity and support for the Communist cause. 
• Emergence of Revolutionary Groups:  Various groups of revolutionaries emerged across China, eventually forming the Communist Party, marking the beginning of the Chinese Civil War. 
• Temporary Truce and Resumption of Civil War:  The bloody war was temporarily halted by the Japanese invasion during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The Communists and Nationalists formed an uneasy peace pact, but Chiang Kai-shek never intended to share power with the Communists, leading to the resumption of the Civil War after World War II. 
• Anti-Japanese Stance and Victories:  The Communists' strong anti-Japanese stance and several victories over Japanese forces helped them mobilize civilian support. 
• Land Reforms:  The Communist Party implemented land reforms, giving much-needed land to starving peasants. This act portrayed the Communists as the true guardians of the people, in contrast to the corrupt Nationalists. 
• Defections from KMT:  Many army men from peasant families in the KMT defected to the Communists, further strengthening their cause. 

Impact of the Chinese Revolution on China 

• The government took over large landholdings, arguing that the gentry's wealth and power came from exploiting labor. 
• Landless people were given land to farm, which led to the creation of producers' cooperatives. 

2. Food Security and Crime Control: 

• Authorities implemented food rationing and ensured the availability of basic necessities. 
• They also took measures to control disease, banditry, and crime, including a ban on the sale of daughters and wives, and the prohibition of child brothels. 

 3. Women’s Rights: 

• The Communist regime abolished the traditional supremacy of men over women, concubinage, and child marriage. 
• Marriage was redefined as a contract between consenting individuals, with both parties having the right to demand a divorce. 
• Women gained equal rights to family property, and practices like child marriage and the sale of girls were banned. 
• In communes, women were treated equally to men and were required to work alongside them, although this impacted their roles as mothers. 

4. Health Initiatives: 

• The government launched Patriotic Health Movements to educate villagers about hygiene and disease prevention. 
• Barefoot Doctors, trained in basic medical care, provided free healthcare in rural areas. 
• Opium addiction was addressed by burning poppy fields and rehabilitating addicts. 

5. Education Reforms: 

• A national primary education system was established, raising the literacy rate from 20% in 1949 to 70% by 1976. 
• Education was officially free and accessible to both boys and girls. 
• The introduction of pinyin, a phonetic form of Mandarin, facilitated learning and communication. 

6. Destruction of Traditional Culture: 

• The government deployed 1.5 million propagandists to spread the Party's message and destroy traditional culture. 
• Ancient structures in Beijing were demolished, and traditional songs, dances, and festivals were banned. 

7. Religious Persecution: 

• Mao compared religion to Nazism and sought its eradication. 
• Churches were destroyed, and priests and monks were persecuted. 
• In Tibet and Xinjiang, the government targeted religious practices intertwined with nationalism, settling Chinese immigrants in these regions to dilute local populations. 

8. Cultural Purification: 

• Mao's wife led the campaign to purify culture, banning traditional and Western cultural expressions. 
• Musicians and authors had to conform to Party guidelines, or face persecution and re-education. 

Factors Contributing to the KMT's Weakness 

• KMT's Corruption and Inefficiency:  The KMT administration was marked by corruption, with American aid often benefiting officials personally. The KMT army was weakened and impoverished by the Japanese invasion. 
• Alienation of the KMT Army:  KMT troops, poorly compensated and allowed to loot, became estranged from the administration. Communist propaganda influenced many of these troops to defect to the communists. 
• KMT's Distrust of the Masses:  The KMT relied on the support of landlords and the propertied classes, losing touch with the masses and failing to gain their sympathy. 
• Poor Industrial Working Conditions:  Despite laws meant to improve factory conditions, such as banning child labor in textile mills, abuses continued due to bribery and the KMT's reluctance to offend industrial backers. 
• Peasant Poverty:  Droughts and poor harvests in the early 1930s caused widespread famine in rural areas, worsened by hoarding in cities and high taxes. The communists' land policy, in contrast, gained support from peasants and smaller landowners. 
• Failure to Resist Japanese Invasion:  The KMT's inability to effectively resist the Japanese invasion, along with Chiang's focus on combating communists rather than Japanese forces, disillusioned nationalists and the general populace. 
• Controversial New Life Movement:  Chiang's New Life Movement, promoting a return to Confucian values, was criticized and seen as a regression to imperial oppression. 

Factors Contributing to the Communist Victory 

• Communist Strength and Popular Support:  The communists' restrained land policy, effective guerrilla warfare, and portrayal as patriotic nationalists during the war with Japan earned them significant support. Their land reforms and disciplined armies further solidified their position. 
• Advantageous Circumstances for the Communists:  The communists took advantage of the KMT's weaknesses and positioned themselves as the legitimate representatives of the people, contrasting with the KMT's corruption and inefficiency. 
• CCP's Tactical Advantages:  The leadership and tactical skills of CCP leaders and generals, such as Mao Zedong, Zhou En-lai, Lin Biao, Chu Teh, and Ch'en Yi, were crucial in securing the communist victory. 

How Japan Became the Creator of Communist China 

•  The Japanese occupation of parts of China and their blatant imperialism actually strengthened the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) under Mao Zedong while weakening the Nationalist Party (KMT) led by Chiang Kai-shek. This shift in power dynamics ultimately paved the way for the CCP's victory and the proclamation of the People's Republic of China by Mao in October 1949. 
•  In 1931, the Japanese occupied Manchuria and seemed poised to extend their control over northern China. At this critical juncture, Chiang Kai-shek prioritized eliminating the communists over resisting the Japanese threat and launched an attack on Mao in south Shensi in 1936. However, Chiang was eventually convinced to halt his anti-communist campaign and join forces with the communists against the common enemy, Japan. 

This new alliance brought significant advantages to the communists: 

• The KMT's extermination campaigns against the communists temporarily ceased, allowing the CCP to secure its base in Shensi. 
• The Japanese invasion cleared northeast China of old authorities, whom the KMT had struggled to control. 
• The invasion bogged down the Japanese in a vast area of China that they could not effectively govern. 

This created an ideal environment for guerrilla warfare, which the communists termed "The People's War of Resistance." The KMT's ineffective resistance to the Japanese was a crucial factor in the CCP's success. 

•  When full-scale war broke out with Japan in 1937, KMT forces were swiftly defeated, leading to the Japanese occupation of most of eastern China as Chiang retreated westward. Meanwhile, the communists, remaining undefeated in Shensi, positioned themselves as patriotic nationalists leading an effective guerrilla campaign against the Japanese in the north. This shift garnered them immense support from peasants and the middle class, who were outraged by Japanese brutality. 
•  Between 1937 and 1945, the CCP expanded its influence significantly, growing from 5 base areas controlling 12 million people to 19 base areas controlling 100 million people. 
•  While Japan's actions indirectly facilitated the success of the CCP and the establishment of Communist China, other factors also played a role, including the KMT's inefficiency and corruption, the dire conditions of factory workers and peasants, Chiang's controversial 'New Life Movement,' and Mao's leadership. 

The United States' Policy in China (1945-1949) 

During this period, the United States aimed to mediate the conflict between the Nationalists and the Communists in China. 

American Perception of the KMT and CCP 

•  The U.S. recognized that the KMT was no longer an effective unifying force in China. 
•  The CCP was seen as a serious contender for power, capable of leading a strong national movement. 

Soviet Influence and the KMT 

•  The KMT's strength was partially a result of Soviet support, which included military funding. 
•  The Soviets had a vested interest in supporting the KMT to weaken imperialist influence in China. 

American Mediation Efforts 

•  President Harry S. Truman sent General George C. Marshall to China to mediate between the KMT and the CCP. 
•  The U.S. aimed to promote a unified and democratic China, believing it was essential for global stability. 

Initial Cooperation and Subsequent Conflict 

•  Initially, the Communists were open to negotiations, while the KMT sought military control first. 
•  The U.S. continued to support the KMT, aiding them in reclaiming areas occupied by the Japanese, except for Manchuria, which the Soviets had captured. 

Breakdown of Cooperation 

•  The KMT's reliance on Soviet support and the CCP's growing power led to a breakdown of cooperation. 
•  The American aid to the KMT and the Soviet support for the CCP contributed to the civil war. 

Civil War and Communist Victory 

•  The civil war intensified, with the CCP gaining strength and the KMT's position deteriorating. 
•  In 1948, the CCP launched direct attacks on KMT forces, leading to the KMT's collapse. 

Establishment of the People's Republic of China 

•  By January 1949, the CCP had taken Beijing, and by the end of the year, the KMT retreated to Taiwan. 
•  On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China in Tiananmen Square, marking the official establishment of communist rule in China. 

Setback for the United States 

•  The defeat of the KMT despite significant American support was a blow to U.S. prestige. 
•  The emergence of Communist China shifted the global balance of power, marking the Soviet Union's first major post-war victory and the U.S.'s first defeat. 

How the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) Owed Its Victory to the USSR? 

• The Chinese Marxists faced the challenge of a predominantly peasant population, unlike the worker-focused revolutions in Russia. 
• Li Dazhao, a key figure in Chinese Marxism, argued that foreign exploitation made all Chinese people part of the proletariat and emphasized the need to liberate peasants for China's freedom. 
• He encouraged young Marxists to engage with rural communities, starting in 1920. 
• The lack of support from Western powers for Sun Yat-sen, who sought to end foreign privileges in China, led him to seek assistance from Moscow. 
• In January 1918, Sun congratulated Lenin on the Bolshevik Revolution, aligning with Lenin's belief that the Russian Revolution needed allies in other countries. 
• Lenin supported "bourgeois nationalism" in colonial areas as a means to anti-imperialist revolution, which would eventually weaken imperialist control, the highest stage of capitalism. 
• This interest in the KMT movement in China led to Soviet support for Sun Yat-sen's KMT in the early 1920s. 
• The Soviets provided military, political, and organizational assistance to Sun Yat-sen's KMT, believing that strong national movements in colonial areas would benefit the Soviet Union by loosening imperialist control. 

Formation of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP):

• In the early 1920s, the Soviet Union supported Sun Yat-sen's KMT, believing it would lead to anti-imperialist revolutions benefiting the USSR. 
• The Soviets provided military and political aid to Sun, who in turn, welcomed Soviet assistance. 
• The Soviet support for the KMT was based on the understanding that the KMT would help weaken imperialist control in China. 
• The Soviets sent a Comintern agent, Grigorii Voytinskii, to China in 1920, who helped transform Marxist study groups into communist groups and later into the Communist Party of China (CCP). 
• The CCP was secretly constituted in July 1921, based on the earlier Marxist study groups and closely following the Bolshevik program. 
•  Voytinskii's work in organizing the CCP was supported by the Soviet government's promise to give up old Russian privileges in China, increasing Chinese goodwill toward the USSR. 
• The Soviet Union's renunciation of old privileges in China and return of the Chinese Eastern Railway in 1924 further improved Sino-Soviet relations. 

Cooperation with the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Northern Expedition (1926-1928):

• The CCP, following orders from Lenin and later Stalin, cooperated with the KMT to strengthen and infiltrate the KMT. 
• The CCP's major contribution to the KMT was organizing worker support for the KMT during the Northern Expedition. 
• The Northern Expedition was a point of contention between Stalin and Trotsky. 
• Stalin funded the KMT during the expedition, believing it would lead to the fall of imperialism in China. 
• Trotsky criticized Stalin's policy, advocating for a proletarian revolution and opposing the KMT. 
• Despite the KMT's betrayal of the CCP, Stalin continued to support the KMT. 

Impact of Stalin's Policy on the CCP:

• Stalin's policy initially exposed the CCP to brutal repression but was seen as aiding a strong national movement. 
• The CCP's strategy, focusing on peasant support, was not endorsed by Stalin or Trotsky. 
• The CCP's approach of building support among peasants was crucial for its eventual success. 

Factors Leading to CCP Victory:

• The CCP's focus on peasant support, unlike the KMT's reliance on Soviet aid, was key to its success. 
• The perception of KMT strength was misleading; the KMT's collapse began in 1948 as CCP forces grew stronger. 
• The CCP's direct challenges to KMT forces in 1948 marked a turning point, leading to the KMT's disintegration. 
• The CCP's capture of Beijing in January 1949 and the KMT's retreat to Taiwan later that year were significant milestones. 
• Mao Zedong's proclamation of the People's Republic of China on October 1, 1949, marked the official establishment of communist rule in China. 

Early Advantages for Chinese Communism over Soviet Communism:

• The Chinese communists had the advantage of learning from the Soviet experience, while the Soviet Union had to operate under severe economic blockade and diplomatic isolation. 
• China benefited from massive economic and technical aid from the Soviet Union, especially in the early stages. 
• Unlike the Soviet Union, which faced severe economic blockade, China enjoyed a powerful ally in the USSR. 
• Mao Zedong's leadership provided continuity and guidance to China for a long period, unlike Lenin who died soon after the revolution. 
• The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) had a firm base among the peasants and was fully familiar with rural problems, which was not the case in the Soviet Union. 

Differences in the Nature of Chinese Communism and Soviet Communism 

• The early Communist Party in China closely followed Russian political philosophy. However, Mao Zedong believed that a workers' revolution was not feasible in China due to the predominance of peasants. 
• Mao shifted the focus of Chinese communism towards a peasant revolution, recognizing the majority of the population as peasants rather than workers. 
• Despite these differences, both nations shared similar values until the 1950s when a significant ideological rift emerged. 
• During this period, the Soviet Union advocated for coexistence with capitalism, while China remained aggressive, labeling the United States as an imperialist enemy and committing to assist in revolutionary struggles against imperialism. 

Cultural Differences: 

• The Soviets celebrated cultural achievements of Russia's past, while Mao Zedong aimed to displace traditional Chinese culture. 
• Mao even prohibited traditional medicine for a period, reflecting a desire to break from historical cultural practices. 

Political Differences: 

• Mao's program envisioned cooperation with progressive bourgeois parties, differentiating it from the orthodox Marxist idea of a dictatorship of the proletariat. 
• The Chinese Communist regime did not seek to eliminate the bourgeoisie or private capital entirely but imposed increasing restrictions on private businesses while tolerating private capital. 
• This approach represents a modification of orthodox Marxism, adapting to the realities of Chinese society.