World War I: Causes Of The World War I | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Causes of the First World War

Immediate Cause of the War:

• The immediate cause of the war was the deep-seated hostility between Austria and Serbia in the Balkans, which escalated after the assassination of Archduke Francis, the heir to the Austrian throne, in Sarajevo by a Bosnian nationalist. 
• Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, provinces similar to Serbia in ethnicity and language, had created a situation reminiscent of the Alsace-Lorraine conflict in the Balkans. 
• This annexation sparked a strong agitation among the Serbians who sought to unite these provinces with Serbia. 
• Austria, however, was determined to curb Serbia's expansion, fearing that an enlarged and strengthened Serbia would attract millions of Croato-Serbs under Austrian rule. 
• Austria was concerned that the realization of Serb and Slav nationalist aspirations for a Yugoslav state would lead to the downfall of the Habsburg Empire. 
• To prevent Serbia from gaining further territory and influence, Austria influenced the post-Balkan War settlements, including depriving Serbia of some gains and establishing the artificial state of Albania to block Serbia's access to the sea. 
• Despite Austrian opposition, Serbia managed to expand her territory and enhance her prestige, fueled by a fervent patriotism that intensified Pan-Slavic agitation. 
• This led Austria to intensify its efforts to isolate and weaken Serbia. 
• It was against this backdrop of mutual hostility that the assassination of Archduke Francis triggered the outbreak of World War I. 
• The assassination in Sarajevo escalated into a world war due to various factors: 
• Austria's aggressive stance in declaring war on Serbia, 
• Russia's decision to mobilize, Germany's support for Austria, and 
• Britain's ambiguous stance regarding support for France. 
• The Austro-Serb conflict explains the war's outbreak but not its global scale. 

Nationalism

• The victory of nationalism in Italy and Germany invigorated this sentiment, making it a powerful political force. 
• It fueled racial pride, encouraging people to elevate their nation above others and adopt an arrogant stance towards neighbors. 
• This excess of nationalism exacerbated rivalries between states like Germany and Great Britain, driving them towards naval and military competition. 
• Aggressive nationalism prompted disputes over interests in Asia, Africa, and the Balkans. 
• French nationalism, particularly the desire for revenge over the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, fueled animosity towards Germany. 
• Italy's ambition to reclaim Italian-speaking regions from Austria, known as Italia Irredenta, reflected national aspirations. 
• The unfulfilled national aspirations of Balkan peoples turned the region into a volatile area that eventually ignited conflict across Europe. 

The Alliance System or Armed Camps:

• Originating from Bismarck's diplomacy aimed at securing Germany against a potential French attack, the alliance system divided Europe into two hostile camps. 
• The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, and Italy faced the Dual Alliance of France and Russia, supported by the Triple Entente of England, France, and Russia. 
• The secret nature of these treaties bred suspicion, turning alliances meant to preserve peace into sources of tension. 
• The rivalry between the two camps intensified through a series of diplomatic crises from 1906 to 1914, each group experiencing alternating victories and humiliations. 
• Such instances of diplomatic rebuff and triumph heightened the bitterness between the alliances, setting the stage for war. 
• As suspicions grew, Austria, Germany, and Russia found themselves in situations where war appeared to be the only means to salvage their prestige. 
•  However, some historians argue against this explanation, noting that previous crises had not led to major conflict and that the alliances were not as binding as perceived. 
•  Instances such as Russia's isolation during the Russo-Japanese War and Austria's disinterest in German affairs during the Moroccan crises illustrate the lack of cohesion in the alliance system. 
•  Italy's eventual alignment with the Allies against Germany further exemplifies the fluidity of these alliances, suggesting that no power was strictly bound to declare war based on treaty obligations. 

Competitive Militarism: 

• The rise of nationalist feelings, growing tensions among the major powers, and the presence of two opposing alliance systems created a strong sense of insecurity among these nations. 
• Both groups were on high alert, suspicious of each other, and competed in military preparations for potential attacks. 
• Germany  significantly expanded its standing army. 
• France  extended its compulsory military service from two to three years. 
• Russia  initiated a new program for army expansion. 
• Great Britain  substantially increased its naval expenditure. 
• This arms race fostered fear and hostility among all nations, with the Anglo-German naval rivalry being a notable factor leading to the war. 

The Naval Race between Britain and Germany:

•  Germany, influenced by American Alfred Mahan's ideas on the importance of sea power for empire-building, sought to expand its navy to challenge Britain's supremacy. 
• Beginning with the Navy Law of 1897, Germany made concerted efforts to build up its naval strength. 
• Initially, Britain was not overly concerned about the growing German fleet due to its significant lead. However, the introduction of the revolutionary British 'Dreadnought' battleship in 1906, which rendered all other battleships obsolete, changed the dynamics. 
• This development allowed Germany to compete on equal terms with Britain in battleship construction, leading to a naval arms race that became a major point of contention between the two nations until 1914. 
• Many in Britain perceived the expanding German navy as a potential threat, indicating Germany's intention to challenge Britain. 
• However, by early 1913, Germany had actually reduced its naval spending to focus more on strengthening its army. 
• As noted by Winston Churchill, by the spring and summer of 1914, naval rivalry was no longer a source of conflict, as it was clear that Britain could maintain its lead in capital ships. 

 Economic Rivalry 

• The late 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by a struggle for markets, raw materials, investment opportunities, and settlement areas, which underpinned many international crises in the two decades leading up to the war. 
• Germany was gradually gaining ground in industrial and commercial competition, causing concern in Britain, which feared being surpassed by Germany in global commerce and trade. 
• This economic competition fostered animosity between the two nations, leading them to view each other as rivals and enemies. 
• To a lesser extent, similar economic rivalries existed among other nations as well. 
• Some argue that the desire for economic dominance drove German businessmen to seek war with Britain, which still controlled a significant portion of the world's merchant shipping in 1914. 
• Marxist historians support this view as it attributes the war's blame to the capitalist system. 
• Critics, however, contend that Germany was already on the path to economic victory, with some industrialists believing that a few more years of peace would establish Germany as Europe's economic leader. 
• According to this perspective, Germany had no need for a major war at that time. 

Imperialism 

• Imperialism was a constant source of tension among the powers during this period. 
• The prevailing imperialistic mindset led to the belief that a nation's greatness depended not only on its standing in Europe but also on the value and extent of its non-European possessions. 
• By this new standard, Germany found itself overshadowed by its rivals, such as England, France, and Russia, who had built vast colonial empires and divided most of the lucrative non-European territories among themselves. 
• In contrast, Germany felt the need to secure a "place in the sun" and was determined to carve out a world empire befitting its status. 
• Germany sought opportunities for expansion in various directions but encountered resistance everywhere, as its rivals had already claimed the most lucrative portions of the world. 
• This unfulfilled imperialist ambition became a primary source of international friction and crises leading up to the outbreak of the Great War. 

Criticism of the Causes of the First World War 

•  The argument that Germany's disappointment with its imperial gains and resentment towards the success of other powers contributed to the war is not convincing. 
•  Although there were disputes, they had always been resolved without resorting to war. 
•  In early July 1914, Anglo-German relations were amicable, with a favorable agreement reached regarding the potential partition of Portuguese colonies in Africa. 
•  However, colonial rivalry did lead to dangerous friction, particularly in the form of naval competition. 

Russia's Role in Making War Likely

Russia's support for Serbia played a significant role in making war more likely. 

• Russian backing likely emboldened Serbia in its anti-Austrian stance. 
• Russia was the first to order general mobilization, which in turn provoked Germany to mobilize. 
• Russia was concerned about the situation in the Balkans, where Bulgaria and Turkey were under German influence. 
• This situation threatened Russian control over the Dardanelles, a vital trade route, and created a sense of vulnerability for Russia. 
• The outbreak of war was perceived by Russia as a struggle for survival and an opportunity to assert its prestige as the leader of the Slavs. 
• There were also domestic considerations, with some officials viewing war as a means to divert attention from internal problems, despite the risks involved. 

Austrian Responsibility:

• Some argue that the blame for the war lies more with Austria-Hungary for underestimating Russia's reaction to their actions. 
• German support for Austria-Hungary was crucial but also indicative of a shift in German policy. 
• Initially, Germany had restrained Austria-Hungary in 1913 but later encouraged aggressive actions in 1914. 
• The question remains why Germany's stance towards Austria-Hungary changed between these two instances. 
• Various interpretations have been proposed by historians regarding Germany's role in the outbreak of war. 

Germany's Responsibility for the War:

• Some historians argue that Germany bears most of the blame for the war due to its unconditional support for Austria-Hungary. 
• They suggest that Germany deliberately provoked war to establish itself as the dominant global power and to address internal political tensions. 
• The rise of the German Socialist Party (SPD) and the political struggles within the Reichstag created a climate where a successful war seemed like a solution to internal challenges. 
• Other historians emphasize the timing of events, arguing that Germany felt encircled and threatened by British naval power and Russian military expansion. 
• The German military leadership believed that a preventive war was necessary to secure their position before their enemies grew too strong. 
• There is also a perspective that Germany did not intend for a major war and that the Kaiser and Chancellor miscalculated by assuming that a strong stance in support of Austria-Hungary would deter Russia. 

 Mobilization Plans of the Great Powers:

• Some historians believe that Germany's mobilization plan, particularly the Schlieffen Plan, was risk-prone and inflexible, contributing to the onset of disaster for both Germany and Europe. 
• A. J. P. Taylor argued that these plans, based on precise railway schedules for quick troop movements, accelerated events and left little room for negotiation. 

Responsibility for the Outbreak of War

Germany

• Most historians believe that Germany's leaders deliberately provoked the outbreak of war. 
• The Kaiser and his advisers felt that Russia was close to completing its military buildup, and they believed time was running out for Germany. 
• They viewed the war as necessary for Germany's survival, not for world domination, and felt it had to happen before Germany's position among the Great Powers weakened further. 
• German leaders gambled on a swift victory, knowing the war would likely be long, with the hope of future dominance. 
• Helmuth von Moltke, a German general, believed that this gamble was essential to fulfill "Germany's preordained role in civilization," which could only be achieved through war. 
• Some historians argue that Kaiser Wilhelm II bears the most responsibility for his duplicity and recklessness in starting the war. 

Austria 

• Some historians suggest that the Austrian government had not decided to attack Serbia before the assassinations in Sarajevo because they had other political priorities. 
• They argue that war was not inevitable in 1914 but became possible due to the murders of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife. 
• Without these assassinations, there would have been no decision for war in Vienna, and thus no general conflict. 
• Some believe that German pressure and promises of support were not decisive, and Austrian leaders made their own decisions. 

Russia 

• Some argue that Russia shares equal responsibility for the outbreak of war, especially if its rearmament was making Germany nervous. 
• Historians note that Russia's defeat by Japan in 1905 weakened the Russian government and shifted its foreign policy focus to the Balkans, aiming to restore lost prestige. 
• Initially, Russia sought peace, but after the assassination of pro-peace minister Pyotr Stolypin in 1911, nationalist sentiments grew, leading to more aggressive policies. 
• Following the Balkan Wars, Russia promised to support Serbia in February 1914 and signed a naval agreement with Britain to secure Mediterranean access. 
• These policies alarmed Germany, shifting its foreign policy and contributing to the decision to support Austria-Hungary. 
• The combination of Russian military expansion and these new policies pushed Germany to risk war before Russia became stronger. 

Conclusion

• A balanced view is that Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary all share responsibility for the outbreak of war in 1914.