World War I: Events And Character of The World War I | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

World War I: The Allies and the Central Powers

The Allies or Entente Powers:

• Britain and her empire: Including troops from Australia, Canada, India, and New Zealand.
• France
• Russia: Left the war in December 1917.
• Italy: Joined the Allies in May 1915.
• Serbia
• Belgium
• Romania: Joined in August 1916.
• United States: Joined in April 1917.
• Japan

The Central Powers:

• Germany
• Austria-Hungary
• Turkey: Joined in November 1914.
• Bulgaria: Joined in October 1915.

Entry of Italy (May 1915)

• Italy declared war on Austrian-Hungary in May 1915, aiming to seize the Italian-speaking provinces and territory along the eastern Adriatic Sea.
• A secret treaty signed in London promised Italy the Italian-speaking provinces, some islands in the Aegean Sea, and a protectorate over Albania.
• The Allies hoped Italy's involvement would distract Austrian troops and relieve pressure on Russia.
• Despite Italy's efforts, their progress was limited, and Russia ultimately faced defeat.

Major Events of 1917: Russian Revolution and U.S. Entry into the War

Russian Revolution:

• The Russian Revolution led to the overthrow of the Czar and the rise of the Bolsheviks.
• In 1918, the Bolsheviks signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, withdrawing Russia from the war and ceding western territories, including Poland and the Baltic Provinces.
• This agreement allowed Germany to move troops to the Western Front, putting the Allies in a critical position.

Entry of the United States into the War:

• The United States joined the war on the side of the Allies in April 1917 due to several reasons:
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  • The U.S. protested against Germany's unrestricted submarine campaign, which violated international law and humanitarian principles.
  • The discovery of Germany's attempt to persuade Mexico to declare war on the U.S. in exchange for Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
• The Americans were initially hesitant to side with the Russian government, but the March Revolution, which overthrew the Czar, removed this obstacle.
• The U.S. made a significant contribution to the Allies' victory by providing vast resources in men and money. They supplied Britain and France with food, merchant ships, and credit, although actual military support was slow to arrive. By the end of 1917, only one American division had seen action, but by mid-1918, over half a million American troops were involved.
• Most importantly, the U.S. presence provided a psychological boost to the Allies and a blow to German morale.

Situation in 1918: The Central Powers Defeated

The German Spring Offensive, 1918:

• The German spring offensive of 1918 was a significant military campaign launched by Germany during World War I. It represented a last-ditch effort by the Central Powers to secure victory before the full impact of American troop deployments and internal unrest in Germany could influence the outcome of the war.
• Following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ended Russia's involvement in the war, Germany was able to transfer a large number of troops from the Eastern Front to the Western Front. This influx of soldiers was intended to bolster German forces and increase the chances of a decisive victory.
• The offensive consisted of a series of attacks aimed at breaking through Allied lines and achieving a significant territorial gain. Initially, the Allies appeared to be on the verge of collapse, with German forces making substantial advances.
• However, the Allies, under the unified command of French Marshal Ferdinand Foch, managed to hold their ground. Foch's leadership provided a crucial advantage, as it ensured coordinated and effective resistance against the German assaults.
• As the German offensive progressed, it began to lose momentum due to logistical challenges, exhaustion of troops, and stiffening Allied resistance. The initial gains made by German forces could not be sustained, and the Allies began to regroup and counterattack.

The Allied Counter-Offensive Begins (8 August 1918):

• The Allied counter-offensive, which commenced on August 8, 1918, marked a turning point in World War I. This coordinated attack was launched simultaneously across multiple points on a broad front, leaving the German forces no time to regroup and respond effectively.
• The scale and intensity of the counter-offensive forced the Germans to withdraw their entire line, initiating a gradual but steady retreat. Allied forces achieved decisive victories in various theaters, including the defeat of the Turks in Syria, the surrender of Bulgaria, and the collapse of Austria-Hungary.
• Despite Germany not being invaded at this stage, the consistent pushback and the series of defeats suffered by the Central Powers wore down German morale and resources. Eventually, as the military situation became increasingly untenable, Germany sought to negotiate peace.
• During this period, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had already articulated the Allies' war aims in January 1918. In his renowned "Fourteen Points" address to Congress, Wilson outlined the principles for a post-war peace settlement, emphasizing the goal of establishing a lasting peace among the war-torn nations.
• Germany, hoping to negotiate less severe terms based on Wilson's Fourteen Points, sought peace to avoid invasion and preserve the army's reputation.

Armistice Signed:

• On the basis of Wilson's Fourteen Points, with certain reservations, the Allies agreed to consider Germany's appeal for peace.
• Germany accepted the Allies' demands and signed an armistice on November 11, 1918.
• While the armistice terms were being negotiated, a mutiny in the German navy sparked a wave of revolution. The Kaiser fled to Holland, and a republic was established in Germany. This new republican government was responsible for signing the armistice.
• The armistice stipulated that Germany would surrender its navy and a significant portion of its guns and war materials. Additionally, Germany was required to evacuate the invaded countries by retreating to the right bank of the Rhine River.
• Thus, after four years of conflict, World War I came to an end.

Character of the War

Total War

The war is distinguished from previous conflicts by its unprecedented scale and approach. It marks a revolutionary shift from traditional warfare concepts and is considered the first total war in modern history.

• Global Involvement: The war was a worldwide conflict involving nearly all "civilized" nations. Its scope and strategy were global, with battles fought across various continents, necessitating the mobilization of vast armies.
• Destructive Technology: The war was exceptionally lethal due to advancements in military technology. Innovations such as submarines, poison gas, flamethrowers, tanks, and armored vehicles contributed significantly to the high casualty rates.
• Comprehensive Mobilization: The war effort required the full mobilization of a nation's resources, including material, intellectual, and moral energies. The enemy community, encompassing its scientists, workers, and farmers, became legitimate targets of war.
• State Control: The war saw an unprecedented exercise of state power, with the government controlling various aspects of life to meet war demands. Rationing of food and other supplies, requisitioning of private property, and regulation of factories became common, involving every family in the war effort.
• Balance of Power: Despite its unique characteristics, the war was also similar to previous European conflicts in being fought for the Balance of Power. Since 1871, Prussia had been a dominant and aggressive force in Europe, prompting other powers to unite against it.

Reasons for the War's Duration

At the outset of the war, most people believed it would conclude quickly, possibly by Christmas. However, figures like Britain’s Secretary for War, Lord Kitchener, predicted a much longer conflict, closer to three years. Several factors contributed to the war's extended duration:

• Balanced Powers: The two sides were relatively evenly matched, leading to a prolonged stalemate.
• Global Conflict: Although the primary fighting occurred in Europe, the war quickly became global. Countries not originally part of the alliances joined in, some seeking territorial gains, while others waited to see which side appeared stronger before committing. Nations like Italy, Romania, the USA, and Japan joined the Allies, while Turkey and Bulgaria sided with the Central Powers.
• Strong War Aims: The main countries involved had strong, unwavering war aims that made negotiation difficult. The Germans sought to establish buffer zones for protection, the French aimed to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine, the British were determined to prevent German control over Belgium, and Austria-Hungary wanted to maintain its empire against Serbian ambitions.
• Stalemate on the Western Front: Once a stalemate was reached, the Central Powers had the advantage in defensive capabilities. German troops, using machine guns and barbed wire, were more effective than the attackers, who relied heavily on artillery bombardments.
• Role of Propaganda: Propaganda played a crucial role in sustaining public and military support for the war. Efforts to instill national pride and spread horror stories about the enemy kept morale high, even in the face of hardships like food shortages and labor unrest in Germany. The defeat of Russia further motivated German forces to continue fighting.

The combination of these factors meant that the war would continue until one side was either completely overrun and occupied or so exhausted that it could no longer sustain the fight.

Reasons for the Defeat of the Central Powers in World War I

After the failure of the Schlieffen Plan, which had aimed for a swift German victory, the Central Powers faced immense difficulty, as they were now engaged in a prolonged conflict on two fronts.

Allied Sea Power and Blockade:

• The decisive sea power of the Allies enforced a stringent blockade.
• This blockade caused severe food shortages for the German civilian population and crippled their exports.
• Simultaneously, it ensured that Allied armies were well-supplied.

German Submarine Campaign:

• The German submarine campaign faltered against Allied convoys protected by British, American, and Japanese destroyers.
• This campaign also backfired by contributing to the United States' entry into the war.

Entry of the United States:

• The entry of the United States into the war brought vast new resources to the Allies, compensating for Russia's exit.
• This shift enabled the Allies to produce more war materials than the Central Powers, ultimately proving decisive.

Leadership and Strategy:

• Allied political leaders, such as Lloyd George and Clemenceau, were generally more competent than those of the Central Powers during crucial periods.
• The unity of command under General Foch and the lessons learned by British Commander Haig from previous experiences in 1917 were vital to the Allied victory in the war's final stages.
• Despite initial inexperience in trench warfare, Haig adapted quickly and emerged as an imaginative commander, significantly contributing to the Allied success in 1918.

Strain on German Forces:

• The continuous strain of heavy losses affected the German forces profoundly.
• The 1918 offensive depleted their best troops, and the new replacements were young and inexperienced.
• In contrast, the Allied forces were increasing in number, particularly with the arrival of more American troops.

Spanish Flu Epidemic:

• An outbreak of the deadly Spanish flu further compounded Germany's difficulties.
• Low morale among German troops, coupled with the psychological collapse of many soldiers, led to mass surrenders, with approximately 350,000 German troops giving up during the last three months of the war.

Failure of Allies:

• Germany was also let down by its allies, as it had to constantly support Austria and Bulgaria.
• The defeat of Bulgaria by British and Serbian forces on September 29, 1918, was particularly demoralizing for German soldiers, who saw no chance of victory.
• The defeats of Austria by Italy and Turkey’s surrender in October signaled the impending end.

War-Weariness and Revolution:

• The combination of military defeat, severe food shortages, and growing war-weariness led to mutinies in the navy, a decline in army morale, and revolutions at home in Germany.