Interwar Period: Hitler’s Foreign Policy | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Hitler's Foreign Policy: Aims and Controversies

Hitler aimed to restore Germany's status as a great power by overturning the Treaty of Versailles and expanding its territory. His foreign policy focused on:

• Destroying the Versailles Settlement: Hitler wanted to dismantle the post-World War I peace agreement that he believed unfairly punished Germany.
• Building Up the Army: Despite the Treaty of Versailles prohibiting a large military, Hitler sought to strengthen Germany's armed forces.
• Recovering Lost Territory: He aimed to reclaim areas like the Saar and the Polish Corridor, which had been lost after World War I.
• Uniting German-Speaking Peoples: Hitler planned to bring all German-speaking individuals into the Reich, which involved annexing Austria and acquiring parts of Czechoslovakia and Poland.

Lebensraum and Expansionist Aims:

• Seize More Territory: After annexing Austria and parts of Czechoslovakia and Poland, Hitler might have intended to take over the rest of Czechoslovakia and Poland.
• Conquer Russia: Some historians argue that Hitler aimed to invade and occupy large parts of Russia, extending German territory as far east as the Ural Mountains.

Lebensraum and Population Pressure:

• Lebensraum: This concept referred to the idea of "living space" for Germans, which included land for food production and areas for settlement and colonization.
• Population Growth: Hitler claimed Germany's population was too large for its current territory and needed more land to sustain itself.

Conflict with the USSR:

• Hitler's disdain for "Jewish Bolshevism" indicated that he saw conflict with the Soviet Union as inevitable. He believed that a war with the USSR would be necessary to eradicate communism.
• He envisioned acquiring colonies in Africa and establishing naval bases in the Atlantic as part of his expansionist strategy.

Diverging Historical Perspectives

• A. J. P. Taylor's View: Historian A. J. P. Taylor argued that Hitler did not have a detailed plan for acquiring Lebensraum and did not intend to start a major war. Taylor suggested that Hitler was only prepared for a limited conflict with Poland and that his early successes were due to other countries' indecision.
• Historians' Perspective: Many historians believe that Hitler's writings on Lebensraum were not a strict agenda but rather a means to garner support and unify the Nazi Party. There is little evidence to suggest that Hitler had thoroughly considered the complexities of establishing and managing a Nazi empire in Europe.

A Series of Successes

• Despite the uncertainties surrounding his long-term goals, Adolf Hitler embarked on his foreign policy with a series of remarkable successes, significantly contributing to his popularity in Germany. By the end of 1938, most of his initial objectives had been accomplished without resorting to war and with the approval of Britain. The only remaining aim was the incorporation of ethnic Germans in Poland into the Reich. However, it was when peaceful means failed to achieve this that Hitler made the fateful decision to invade Poland.
• Given Germany's military weakness in 1933, Hitler adopted a cautious approach initially. He withdrew Germany from the World Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations, arguing that France would not agree to Germany's equality in armaments. Simultaneously, he maintained that Germany was willing to disarm if other nations did the same and that his intentions were solely peaceful. This approach exemplified his tactic of acting boldly while simultaneously soothing opponents with conciliatory rhetoric.

Ten-Years Non-Aggression Pact:

Hitler signed a ten-year non-aggression pact with Poland in January 1934, addressing Polish concerns about the potential reclamation of the Polish Corridor. This agreement was seen as a triumph for Hitler as it:

• Convinced Britain of his peaceful intentions.
• Undermined France’s Little Entente, which relied on Polish support.
• Secured Polish neutrality in the event of German actions against Austria and Czechoslovakia.

However, it also strengthened ties between France and Russia, both wary of Nazi Germany's ambitions.

Return of Saar after Plebiscite:

• In January 1935, the Saar region was returned to Germany following a plebiscite in which 90 percent of voters favored reunification. This area, significant for coal production, had been removed from German control by the Treaty of Versailles to weaken Germany industrially. Although the vote was stipulated in the peace settlement, Nazi propaganda capitalized on this success. Hitler proclaimed that all grievances between France and Germany had now been resolved.

First Successful Breach of Versailles Treaty: Reintroduction of Conscription:

• Hitler's first notable violation of the Treaty of Versailles occurred in March 1935 with the announcement of the reintroduction of conscription. He justified this move by pointing to British air force expansions and France's extension of conscription from 12 to 18 months, claiming that these actions were responses to German rearmament.
• Hitler aimed to build up a peacetime army of about 600,000 men, significantly exceeding the treaty's limitations. Although the Stresa Front (comprising Britain, France, and Italy) condemned this breach, no concrete action was taken. The League of Nations proved powerless, and the Stresa Front ultimately disintegrated due to Hitler's subsequent successes.

Anglo-German Naval Agreement (June 1935):

• Recognizing the fragility of the Stresa Front, Hitler sought to detach Britain by proposing to limit the German navy to 35 percent of the British navy's strength. Britain accepted this offer, leading to the signing of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in June 1935. British policymakers believed that, given Germany's ongoing violations of the Treaty of Versailles by expanding its fleet, it was preferable to have limits in place.
• By signing this agreement without consulting its allies, Britain effectively condoned German rearmament, which proceeded with increasing momentum. By the end of 1938, the German army had expanded to approximately 800,000 men, with reserves included. The navy boasted 21 large vessels (battleships, cruisers, and destroyers), with many more under construction, and 47 U-boats. Additionally, a substantial air force of over 5,000 aircraft had been established.

Rhineland Invasion (1936):

• The Rhineland had long been a crucial industrial region for Germany, rich in coal, steel, and iron resources. It also served as a natural barrier against France, with the River Rhine providing a defensible obstacle in the event of war. One of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles was that Germany could not maintain military forces in a 50km stretch of the Rhineland, a provision Hitler resented as it left Germany vulnerable to invasion.
• Motivated by his earlier successes, Hitler decided to send troops into the demilitarized Rhineland in March 1936, violating both the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Pact. Although the troops were ordered to withdraw at the first sign of French opposition, no resistance was encountered beyond standard protests. Aware of the prevailing pacifist sentiment among his opponents, Hitler also offered France and Britain a 25-year non-aggression pact, asserting that Germany had no territorial demands in Europe.

Reactions to Hitler's Actions in the Rhineland: A Historical Overview

Britain's Response:

• Britain chose not to take action against Hitler's reoccupation of the Rhineland due to its own economic and military weaknesses. The nation was hesitant to commit to war unless absolutely necessary.
• At the time, Britain was preoccupied with a dispute with Italy over its military actions in Abyssinia (Ethiopia), which required British forces to be stationed in the Mediterranean. This limited Britain's ability to confront Germany.
• There was a prevalent belief in Britain that Germany was merely re-entering its own territory by sending troops into the Rhineland. While the British government criticized the violation of the Treaty of Versailles, it did not view it as a justification for war.

France's Response:

• France also refrained from taking action when Germany reoccupied the Rhineland due to its own political instability. The Hoare-Laval Pact, an attempt by France and Britain to appease Italy over its actions in Abyssinia, had caused political turmoil in France and weakened the government.
• French military forces had been repositioned from the Rhine to the Alps and Tunisia because of tensions with Italy, leaving the Rhineland vulnerable. France was unwilling to act against Germany without British support.
• France relied on the Maginot Line, a series of fortifications along the Franco-German border, for defense against potential German aggression. The Maginot Line was seen as a crucial defensive measure.

Results of the Rhineland Reoccupation:

• Hitler's reoccupation of the Rhineland significantly boosted his status and confidence. Over the next two years, Germany strengthened its defenses and accelerated rearmament, surpassing the military capabilities of Britain and France.
• France continued to bolster the Maginot Line in preparation for future German aggression. However, the alliance between France and Britain became strained due to Britain's reluctance to confront Hitler.
• French alliances with Eastern European countries weakened as France focused solely on defending against Germany. Britain reaffirmed its commitment to assist France and Belgium in the event of an invasion, upholding the Locarno Pact.
• Austria came under increased pressure from Germany, and Britain began rearming its military forces in response to the changing geopolitical landscape.

Other Successes and Strengthening Alliances:

• In 1936, Hitler solidified Germany's position by establishing closer ties with Mussolini through the Rome-Berlin Axis and signing the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan, later joined by Italy. This anti-Communist alliance strengthened Germany's international standing.
• The German Condor Legion gained military experience by assisting Franco in the Spanish Civil War, notably through the bombing of the Basque town of Guernica, which would be discussed in detail later.

Achieving Anschluss: The Union with Austria (March 1938):

• Hitler aimed to unite all German-speaking nations in Europe under German control. His desire for Anschluss, or union with Austria, was driven by the need to incorporate his native homeland into the German Reich. The Treaty of Versailles had explicitly forbidden the unification of Germany and Austria.
• In addition to Austria, Hitler sought control over the Sudetenland, a predominantly German-speaking region within Czechoslovakia. The geographic proximity of Austria to the Sudetenland made its incorporation into Germany strategically important.
• To achieve these goals, Hitler was determined to destabilize Austria and undermine its independence, paving the way for Anschluss.

Setback to Anschluss in July 1934:

• In July 1934, Hitler faced a setback in his ambitions for Anschluss when Austrian Nazis, encouraged by him, attempted a coup by assassinating Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss. Dollfuss had banned the Nazi party and received support from Mussolini.
• Mussolini, honoring a 1934 agreement to protect Austria from external aggression, deployed Italian troops to the Austrian border to deter a potential German invasion. The Nazi revolt ultimately failed.
• Realizing that Germany was not yet strong enough to enforce Anschluss, Hitler distanced himself from the Austrian Nazis' actions. Following Dollfuss's assassination, the new Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg sought to prevent German invasion by avoiding provocations against Hitler.
• Schuschnigg attempted to appease Hitler by cooperating as much as possible, even signing the German-Austrian Agreement of 1936. This pact recognized Austria's independence but required alignment with Germany's foreign policy and allowed Nazis to hold official positions in the Austrian government.
• Schuschnigg hoped that these concessions would satisfy Hitler, but he underestimated Hitler's ambitions. The formalization of the Rome-Berlin Axis between Hitler and Mussolini during their joint involvement in the Spanish Civil War in 1936 left Austria without Italian protection and more vulnerable to German aggression.
• As Hitler increased pressure on Austria, Schuschnigg's position weakened. Hitler demanded greater influence over the Austrian government, leading to the appointment of a Nazi Minister of the Interior.
• To create a pretext for invasion, Hitler ordered Austrian Nazis to incite chaos and disorder. If he could claim that law and order had broken down in Austria, he could justify sending German troops to restore order.
• The situation escalated when Austrian Nazis organized large demonstrations that overwhelmed Schuschnigg's government. Fearing a German invasion, Schuschnigg announced a referendum on Austria's independence. This infuriated Hitler, as a negative vote would undermine his justification for invasion.
• Hitler ordered Schuschnigg to cancel the referendum. With no support from Italy and facing indifference from France and Britain, Schuschnigg had no choice but to concede. He canceled the referendum and resigned.
• On March 12, 1938, German troops marched into Austria unopposed, marking the successful annexation of Austria. A month later, Hitler held a rigged referendum to legitimize German control over Austria, claiming popular support for the union.

Foreign Reaction to the Anschluss (March 1938)

France:

• In March 1938, French politics were chaotic. Just two days before Germany invaded Austria, the entire French government had resigned.
• Given this turmoil, France was not in a position to oppose Germany's actions.

Britain:

• British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was committed to appeasing Hitler, and there was little political will in Britain to oppose Germany's actions.
• The British public was largely against the idea of another European war.
• The annexation of Austria was not perceived as a threat to Britain. Since both Austria and Germany were German-speaking countries, many in Britain saw no valid reason against their unification.
• Critics of appeasement, like Winston Churchill, were troubled by Germany's annexation of Austria. They believed that if Hitler had a legitimate claim to Austria, he should have pursued it through negotiation and diplomacy instead of force.

Significance of the Anschluss:

• The annexation of Austria marked one of Hitler's greatest successes and was a significant triumph for Germany.
• Germany gained seven million new citizens and an army of 100,000.
• The annexation also provided Germany with valuable resources such as steel, iron ore, and Austria’s foreign exchange reserves.
• The event highlighted the weakness of Britain and France, who could only muster protests.
• It demonstrated the effectiveness of Germany's new understanding with Italy.
• The balance of power in Southeastern Europe shifted in favor of Germany, enhancing its influence in the Balkans.
• The annexation dealt a severe blow to Czechoslovakia, which was now vulnerable to attacks from the south, west, and north, effectively surrounding it on three fronts.
• This set the stage for Hitler’s campaign to acquire the German-speaking Sudetenland, culminating in success at the Munich Conference in September 1938.