The Linguistic Reorganisation of States | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

Introduction

• Princely states were politically integrated into the Indian Union between 1947 and 1950.
• Most princely states were merged into existing provinces, while others formed new provinces like Rajputana, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, and Vindhya Pradesh. Some, such as Mysore, Hyderabad, Bhopal, and Bilaspur, became separate provinces.
• The Government of India Act 1935 remained in effect as the constitutional law until the new Constitution was adopted.

New Constitution of India (1950):

• On 26 January 1950, India became a sovereign democratic republic under the new Constitution, which established India as a “Union of States.”
• The Constitution classified states into four categories: Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D.

(Part A) States:

• Former governors’ provinces of British India, ruled by an elected governor and state legislature.
• Included:
• Assam
• Bihar
• Bombay
• Madhya Pradesh
• Madras
• Orissa
• Punjab
• Uttar Pradesh
• West Bengal

(Part B) States:

• Former princely states or groups of princely states, governed by a rajpramukh and an elected legislature.
• Rajpramukh appointed by the President of India.
• Included:
• Hyderabad
• Jammu and Kashmir
• Madhya Bharat
• Mysore
• Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU)
• Rajasthan
• Saurashtra
• Travancore-Cochin

(Part C) States:

• Included former chief commissioners’ provinces and some princely states, each governed by a chief commissioner appointed by the President of India.
• Included:
• Ajmer
• Bhopal
• Bilaspur
• Coorg
• Delhi
• Himachal Pradesh
• Kutch
• Manipur
• Tripura
• Vindhya Pradesh

(Part D) State:

• Andaman and Nicobar Islands, administered by a lieutenant governor appointed by the central government.

Movements for linguistic states

Before Independence

Demand for linguistic-based states in India:

• The idea of organizing states based on language dates back to before India's independence, during British rule.
• Lokmanya Tilak was a key figure who recognized India's linguistic diversity and advocated for the Congress to operate in regional languages. He also pushed for reorganizing provinces based on language.
• In 1891, Tilak suggested that administrative divisions should be made on a linguistic basis for better homogeneity and regional identity.
• In 1917, the All India Congress Committee's decision to create a separate Congress Province for Telugu-speaking districts strengthened the case for linguistic reorganization.
• There was a growing consensus among Indian leaders that governance and education should be in the dominant language of the people, leading to the idea of linguistic province reorganization.
• Gandhi initially opposed the idea of linguistic reorganization in 1917, believing it could wait, while Tilak saw it as essential for provincial autonomy.
• The partition of Bengal in 1905 highlighted the importance of linguistic states. British colonial rule had previously created multilingual administrative units, but the division of Bengal into religiously heterogeneous units made people think in terms of linguistic unity.
• The Indian National Congress, at its 1905 Calcutta session, opposed Curzon's decision to divide Bengal and advocated for a unified Bengali-speaking administration.
• Colonial administration eventually reversed the bifurcation of Bengal, but Assam and Bihar were carved out as separate provinces in 1911 on a linguistic basis.
• The acceptance of federalism by the Congress in 1916 fueled demands for linguistic states.
• Annie Besant, in her Home Rule movement, emphasized the need for linguistic provinces, influencing early acceptance of linguistic identities.
• In 1920, the Congress officially supported the idea of linguistic states.
• The Congress began organizing provincial committees based on language, recognizing linguistic identities for administrative purposes.
• Language gained prominence in discussions about self-government, especially under Gandhi's leadership in the 1920s.
• In 1927, the Congress reiterated its commitment to province redistribution on a linguistic basis.
• The Simon Commission of 1927 addressed linguistic reorganization but did not accept linguistic or racial principles as the sole criteria.
• The Nehru Committee's report in 1928 formally included the demand for linguistic reorganization, emphasizing people's wishes and linguistic unity.
• Odisha became the first state formed on a linguistic basis in 1936 due to the efforts of Madhusudan Das.
• The principle of linguistic states gained traction and was officially adopted by the Congress.
• On November 27, 1947, Prime Minister Nehru accepted the principle of linguistic provinces in the Constituent Assembly.
• After independence, there were political movements for new linguistic-based states, despite initial concerns about national unity.
• The Congress-led Government feared that states formed solely on linguistic lines might threaten national unity, especially after the partition of India.
• Movements for Ayikya Kerala, Samyukta Maharashtra, and Vishalandhra gained momentum, with the Communist Party of India leading the way in promoting linguistic states as a means of democratizing independent India.
• The demand for a separate linguistic state of Andhra became a contentious issue.
• The government of India, in the Constituent Assembly, indicated that Andhra could be recognized as a separate unit in the new constitution. This prompted the drafting committee to establish a separate committee to address the demands for linguistic states.
• This led to the formation of the Dhar Commission, tasked with examining and reporting on the creation of new provinces based on language, including Andhra, Karnataka, Kerala, and Maharashtra.

Linguistic Provinces Commission (or Dar Commission)

17 June 1948: Rajendra Prasad, President of the Constituent Assembly, established the Linguistic Provinces Commission.
Purpose: To recommend whether states should be reorganized based on language.
Commission Members: S.K. Dar (retired Judge), J.N. Lal (lawyer), and Panna Lall (retired ICS officer).
10 December 1948 Report: The Commission advised against forming provinces solely on linguistic grounds, considering it not in the nation's larger interest.
Bilingual Districts: Suggested that bilingual districts in border areas with unique economic and social lives should remain intact and be managed based on their specific needs.
Reorganization Criteria: Recommended state reorganization based on:

• Geographical Continuity
• Financial Self-Sufficiency
• Administrative Convenience
• Capacity for Future Development

JVP committee

• The Dhar Commission faced significant backlash, leading to the Congress appointing another Linguistic Provinces Committee in December 1948 to re-evaluate the issue.

Formation of the JVP Committee:

• During its session in Jaipur, the Congress established the JVP Committee to assess the Dhar Commission's recommendations.
• The committee included Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Congress president Pattabhi Sitaramayya.

Shift in Focus:

• The JVP Committee shifted the focus from language as the basis for provinces to concerns about security, unity, and economic prosperity.
• This shift marked a departure from the Congress's earlier election manifesto.
• The change in emphasis was likely influenced by the post-partition context.

Committee's Stance:

• The three-member committee, particularly Patel, believed that supporting federal demands based on language would hinder India's growth as a unified nation.
• In its report dated April 1, 1949, the committee advised against the formation of new provinces at that time.
• However, it acknowledged that if public sentiment was overwhelming, they would have to respect it, albeit with certain limitations for the overall good of India.

Views of leaders

• B. R. Ambedkar submitted a memorandum to the Dar Commission on October 14, 1948, advocating for the formation of linguistic provinces. He specifically supported the creation of a Marathi-majority Maharashtra state with Bombay as its capital.
• To promote national unity, Ambedkar proposed that the official language of each province should match the official language of the Central Government.
• He endorsed the idea of “One state, One language” but opposed “One language, One state.”

K. M. Munshi:

• K. M. Munshi, a Gujarati leader, opposed the inclusion of Bombay in the proposed Maharashtra state.
• He criticized the linguistic reorganization proposal, arguing that it would lead to the exclusion and discrimination of other linguistic groups within the area.
• Munshi believed that no safeguards or fundamental rights could protect against the psychological exclusion implied by linguism.

J. L. Nehru and V. K. Krishna Menon:

• J. L. Nehru and V. K. Krishna Menon recognized the dangers of linguistic chauvinism and communalism. Despite the Congress Party’s long-standing support for linguistic provinces, they opposed the idea.
• Krishna Menon argued that the demand for a Malayalam-speaking state was a recent and artificial agitation driven by parties seeking power.
• He criticized the anticipated recommendations of the States Reorganisation Commission for separate Kerala and Tamil states, claiming they were based on the personal views of Commission member K. M. Panikkar.
• Menon believed that creating separate Tamil and Kerala states would have detrimental economic, political, administrative, strategic, and national security implications.
• He warned that further dismembering the state would lead to the Balkanization of India and proposed the creation of a larger Southern State, Dakshin Pradesh, encompassing present-day Tamil Nadu, Travancore, Cochin, Malabar, and possibly parts of Kanara.

First Linguistic State: Andhra

• During the period of 1946-51, the struggle in Telangana highlighted key issues such as land reforms and the demand for linguistic states, forcing the central government to take these matters seriously.
• The impact of these developments was detrimental to the Congress party.
• In the first general elections of 1952, the Telugu people overwhelmingly elected representatives who advocated for the formation of Vishalandhra.
• In the Madras legislative assembly, the Congress party only managed to secure 43 out of 140 seats in the Andhra region.
• Despite challenges, the Congress party installed Rajagopalachari as chief minister in the province, preventing the emergence of a non-Congress government in undivided Madras.
• P Sundarayya, supported by the strong backing of the Telugu people for Vishalandhra, introduced a private member’s bill in Parliament on July 16, 1952, advocating for the formation of a linguistic Andhra state.
• In his speech, Sundarayya argued that linguistic reorganization would promote national unity more effectively than multilingual states and warned of potential unrest if these demands were not met.
• Sundarayya also reassured Prime Minister Nehru that linguistic states would enhance national security and integrity rather than threaten them.
• However,Nehru and the Congress party remained unconvinced, and Nehru denied the demand.
• Potti Sri Ramulu, a prominent Congress leader from the Andhra region, fasted for 58 days in protest against Congress's inaction on the demand. His death sparked widespread chaos in Andhra.
• The intense and widespread protests forced the central government to relent, leading to the introduction of a bill in Parliament on September 2, 1953, to address the demand.
• During this time, the government was careful not to use the term "linguistic state."
• Sundarayya criticized the Nehru government in the Rajya Sabha, arguing against the negation of linguistic states and expressing confidence that people would succeed in forming them.
• Eventually,Nehru had to acknowledge popular sentiment and announced the formation of Andhra Rashtram in the Lok Sabha, comprising 14 undisputed districts.
• On October 1, 1953, the new state of Andhra Rashtram was established, carved out from the Madras province, although Telangana was not included.
• The creation of Andhra Rashtram ignited agitations nationwide, with various linguistic groups demanding separate statehoods.
• The establishment of Andhra Rashtram bolstered the movements for Vishalandhra (encompassing all Telugu-speaking areas), United Kerala, and Samyukta Maharashtra.
• Responding to public pressure and mass mobilization, the Nehru government formed the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC), also known as the Fazal Ali commission.

State Reorganisation Commission (SRC) or Fazl Ali Commission

• The establishment of Andhra State fueled the demand from other regions for the creation of states based on linguistic criteria.
• This prompted the Government of India to set up a three-member States Reorganisation Commission in December 1953, led by Fazl Ali, with K M Panikkar and H N Kunzru as members.

Commission's Recommendations:

• In September 1955, the Commission recommended reorganizing states primarily on linguistic lines.
• However, it disagreed with the concept of 'one language–one state', prioritizing national unity in the reorganization process.

Factors for Reorganisation:

• The Commission identified four key factors for state reorganisation:
• Preservation of national unity and security.
• Linguistic and cultural homogeneity.
• Financial, economic, and administrative considerations.
• Welfare planning and promotion for both state and national levels.

Proposed Changes:

• The commission proposed abolishing the original four-fold classification of states and creating 16 states and 3 centrally administered territories.
• It also recommended the elimination of the Rajapramukh institution, special agreements with former princely states, and the general control vested in the Government of India by Article 371.

The States Reorganisation Act, 1956

• The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 was a significant reform that reorganized the boundaries of India's states and territories based on linguistic lines.
• It came into effect alongside the Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956, which restructured the constitutional framework for India's existing states.

Key Changes Under the Seventh Amendment:

• Abolished the distinction among Part A, Part B, Part C, and Part D states.
• Unified Part A and Part B states into a single category called "states."
• Introduced the concept of union territories, replacing Part C and Part D states.

Implementation of the States Reorganisation Act:

• Established 14 states and several Union Territories (UTs) based on the recommendations of the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC).
• Included new UTs such as Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi Islands, Himachal Pradesh, and Tripura.
• Created states like Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Bombay, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.

Key Mergers and Changes:

• Kerala: Merged Travancore-Cochin State with Malabar District of Madras state and Kasargode of South Canara.
• Andhra Pradesh: Combined Telugu-speaking areas of Hyderabad state with Andhra state.
• Madhya Pradesh: Merged Madya Bharat, Vindya Pradesh, and Bhopal states.
• Bombay: Merged Saurashtra and Kutch states.
• Mysore: Incorporated Coorg state.
• Punjab: Merged Patiala and East Punjab States Union (Pepsu).
• Rajasthan: Included Ajmer state.

Creation of Union Territory:

• Established the union territory of Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands from territory detached from Madras state.

Concept of Zonal Council:

• The Act introduced the concept of Zonal Councils to promote cooperation among states.
• Established five Zonal Councils for northern, central, eastern, western, and southern zone states.

Following recommendations of the commission were not accepted (or done later on)

Vidarbha

• The State Reorganisation Commission (SRC) proposed creating a separate Vidarbha State by separating predominantly Marathi-speaking areas from Madhya Pradesh.
• However, the Indian government did not accept this recommendation. Instead, it merged these Marathi-speaking areas into the predominantly Marathi-speaking Bombay State.

Andhra- Telangana:

• Telangana was initially proposed as the second state for Telugu-speaking people, alongside Andhra, based on the Srikrishna Committee (SRC) recommendations.
• The Commission's report evaluated the merger of the Telugu-majority Telangana region (from Hyderabad State) with Andhra State.
• Recommendation was made for Telangana to become a separate state, possibly named Hyderabad State, with future unification with Andhra contingent on a legislative vote post-1961 elections.
• Despite the recommendation, the Hyderabad Assembly voted overwhelmingly in favor of merging Telangana with Andhra, opposing the SRC's suggestion for a five-year separation.
• On February 20, 1956, an agreement between Telangana and Andhra leaders facilitated the merger, promising to protect Telangana's interests.
• The Gentlemen’s Agreement of Andhra Pradesh was established to prevent discrimination against Telangana within the newly formed state.
• Following this agreement, the central government created unified Andhra Pradesh on November 1, 1956.
• Over the years, there were numerous movements to challenge the merger, with significant protests in 1969, 1972, and the 2000s.
• The Telangana movement gained traction, eventually leading to a widespread demand for a separate state.
• On June 2, 2014, following the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, Telangana was officially recognized as India’s 29th state.

Belgaum border dispute

• After India gained independence in 1947, the Belgaum district, previously part of the Bombay Presidency, became a part of the Bombay State.
• The Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti contested the inclusion of Belgaum district in the Kannada-majority Mysore State (later Karnataka) and advocated for its inclusion in the proposed Marathi-majority Maharashtra state.

Punjabi Suba:

• The Akali Dal, a Sikh-oriented political party in Punjab, pushed for the creation of a Punjabi Suba, a new state where Sikhs would be the majority. This idea worried Punjabi Hindus.
• Sikh leaders like Fateh Singh emphasized that the demand was based on language, not religion, aiming to protect the unique Sikh identity.
• In response, Hindu newspapers in Jalandhar urged Punjabi Hindus to declare Hindi as their “mother tongue.” This was an attempt to weaken the linguistic argument for the Punjabi Suba.
• The States Reorganization Commission denied the request for a Punjabi-majority state, citing a lack of majority support and the similarity between Punjabi and Hindi.
• However, the Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU) was merged with Punjab.
• The Akali Dal persisted in its efforts, and by 1966, the Punjab Reorganisation Actwas passed. This act divided Punjab into:
  • Sikh-majority Punjab
  • Hindu-majority Haryana
• Chandigarh was established as a separate union territory and served as the shared capital for both states.
• The hilly areas of Punjab were incorporated into the newly formed Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh.

Kerala-Madras:

• On the basis of the percentage of Tamil speakers, the S.R. Commission recommended transferring four taluks—Agasteeswaram, Thovalai, Kalkulam, and Vilavancode—from the State of Travancore-Cochin to Tamil Nadu.
• The same criterion was applied for the transfer of Shenkotta Taluk to Tamil Nadu.
• In the cases of Devikulam and Peermede taluks, despite a majority of Tamil-speaking residents and Tamil representatives in the State Assembly, the commission used a different standard and recommended keeping these taluks in Travancore-Cochin due to geographical considerations.
• Although Shenkotta was fully recommended for transfer by the commission, the Joint Committee responsible for determining the exact boundaries divided Shenkotta Taluk and allowed Travancore-Cochin to retain a major portion of it.

New States and Union Territories Created After 1956

Division of the State of Bombay (1960):

• Agitation led to the bifurcation of Bombay State into Maharashtra and Gujarat based on linguistic lines.
• Maharashtra for Marathi-speaking people.
• Gujarat for Gujarati-speaking people.

Territories from France and Portugal:

• Territories acquired from France included Chandernagore, Mahe, Yanam, and Karaikal, which were either merged with neighboring states or designated as union territories.
• Territories acquired from Portugal included Goa, Daman, and Diu, which were also merged with neighboring states or designated as union territories.

Dadra and Nagar Haveli:

• Under Portuguese rule until its liberation in 1954.
• Administered by a locally chosen administrator until 1961.
• Converted into a union territory by the 10th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1961.

Goa, Daman, and Diu:

• Acquired from the Portuguese through police action in 1961.
• Designated as a union territory by the 12th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1962.
• Goa granted statehood in 1987, leading to the separation of Daman and Diu as a separate union territory.

Puducherry:

• Comprises former French establishments: Puducherry, Karaikal, Mahe, and Yanam.
• Handed over to India in 1954 and administered as an ‘acquired territory’ until 1962.
• Designated as a union territory by the 14th Constitutional Amendment Act.

Formation of Nagaland (1963):

• Nagaland was carved out from the Naga Hills and Tuensang area of Assam to address the aspirations of the Naga people.
• Initially placed under the control of the Governor of Assam.
• Increased the number of states in India to 16.

Shah Commission and Formation of Haryana, Chandigarh, and Himachal Pradesh (1966):

• The Punjab Reorganization Act was passed in response to the demand for a separate ‘Sikh Homeland’ (Punjabi Suba).
• Punjab was reconfigured into a unilingual state for Punjabi speakers.
• Hindi-speaking areas were constituted into the State of Haryana.
• Hill areas were merged with the union territory of Himachal Pradesh.
• Chandigarh became a union territory and a common capital for Punjab and Haryana.
• Strength of states rose to 17.

Manipur, Tripura, and Meghalaya (1972):

• Union Territories of Manipur and Tripura, along with the sub-state of Meghalaya, gained statehood.
• Union territories of Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh were formed from territories of Assam.
• Increased the number of states to 21.

Sikkim (1975):

• Initially a protectorate of India in 1947, Sikkim aspired for greater association with India in 1974.
• Gained the status of an ‘associate state’ through the 35th Constitutional Amendment Act.
• In 1975, following a referendum, Sikkim became a full-fledged state of India (22nd state).
• Amendment included special provisions for Sikkim’s administration.

Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, and Goa (1987):

• Mizoram became a full state following the Mizoram Peace Accord in 1986.
• Arunachal Pradesh, previously a union territory, was granted statehood.
• Goa was created as a state by separating it from the union territory of Goa, Daman, and Diu.
• Increased the number of states to 25.

Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, and Jharkhand (2000):

• Chhattisgarh was carved out of Madhya Pradesh.
• Uttarakhand was formed from Uttar Pradesh.
• Jharkhand was created from Bihar.
• These became the 26th, 27th, and 28th states of the Indian Union.

Telangana (2014):

• Telangana was carved out of Andhra Pradesh, becoming the 29th state of the Indian Union.
• Initially, Andhra state was formed in 1953 from Telugu-speaking areas of the State of Madras.
• The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 merged Telugu-speaking areas of Hyderabad state with Andhra state to form Andhra Pradesh.
• The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act of 2014 bifurcated Andhra Pradesh into two states: Andhra Pradesh (residuary) and Telangana.
• Hyderabad was designated as a joint capital for both states for a period of 10 years.

Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation (2019):

• The number of states and union territories was altered to 28 states and 9 union territories.