India and her Neighbours (1947-1964) | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

India-Bhutan

• For most of its history, Bhutan maintained isolation from the outside world, avoiding involvement in international organizations and limiting bilateral relations.
• After the Duar War in 1865, Bhutan came under British suzerainty following conflicts with colonial powers.
• In 1910, the British and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Punakha, which allowed the British to oversee Bhutan's foreign affairs and defense. This treaty laid the groundwork for future relations between India and Bhutan.
• After the British left the Indian subcontinent, the relationship between India and Bhutan continued along similar lines. The Bhutanese agent in India maintained their role, while Indian political representatives in Sikkim assisted in overseeing Bhutan.
• Leading up to India's independence, Bhutan was concerned about its future relations with India. In 1946, when the British Cabinet Mission visited India, the Bhutanese authorities presented a memorandum to emphasize their distinct identity compared to Indian princely states.
• The Cabinet Mission reaffirmed Bhutan's political status, allowing the country to remain autonomous when the British departed in 1947.
• Despite this, Bhutan was still wary of Indian dominance and sought to balance its position by forming alliances with Sikkim and Tibet. However, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru assured Bhutan of its unique identity and autonomy.
• In April 1948, a Bhutanese delegation visited India to request a revision of the treaty signed in 1865 after the Duar War. India agreed and reaffirmed its respect for Bhutan's independence, provided Bhutan maintained similar relations as it had with the British.
• India also agreed to return strips of Dewangiri Hill in exchange for revising key provisions of the 1910 treaty. Bhutan, in turn, agreed to forgo the subsidy it had received from India under the 1910 treaty if India returned 800 square miles of territory taken by the British in 1865.
• Thimphu then sought to establish a new treaty with New Delhi, which India welcomed, hoping that close relations with the Himalayan kingdoms would mitigate potential threats from China.

1949 Treaty of Perpetual Peace and Friendship

Historical Background

• On August 8, 1949, India and Bhutan signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship in Darjeeling.
• This treaty marked the first time the King of Bhutan signed an agreement as a sovereign monarch, reflecting the desire for cordial relations between the two countries.
• The treaty consisted of 10 articles, outlining the framework for India-Bhutan relations.

Key Articles of the Treaty:

• Article 1: Established perpetual peace and friendship between India and Bhutan.
• Article 2: India would not interfere in Bhutan’s administrative affairs, while Bhutan would seek India’s advice in external relations.
• Article 3: India revised Bhutan’s annual allowance to Rs 5 lakh.
• Article 4: India agreed to return 32 square miles of Dewangiri territory to Bhutan.
• Article 5 and 6: Promoted free trade and commerce, with Bhutan importing arms and ammunition only through India.
• Article 7: Ensured equal justice for subjects of both countries residing in each other’s territory.
• Article 9: Allowed extradition of criminals between the two countries.

Impact of the Treaty:

• The treaty established a special relationship between Bhutan and India, laying the groundwork for greater economic assistance and development.
• It became a cornerstone of Bhutan’s foreign policy, especially after the Chinese annexation of Tibet in 1950, as both nations perceived a common threat from Beijing.

Development of Relations:

• Relations between India and Bhutan progressed smoothly until 1959.
• In 1954, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck of Bhutan visited India, followed by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru visiting Bhutan in 1958.
• During Nehru’s visit, he emphasized India’s commitment to Bhutan’s independence.

Chinese Military Crackdown in Tibet:

• In 1959, following the Lhasa Uprising and subsequent Chinese military crackdown in Tibet, Nehru assured the Indian Parliament that any aggression against Bhutan would be viewed as aggression against India.

Signs of gap between the two countries

• In 1959, Bhutan asked India to help mediate talks with China regarding border disputes, especially after the Chinese crackdown in Tibet. However, India declined this request.
• In May 1960, a conflict arose between India and Bhutan over a map issued by India. Bhutan contended that the map did not depict the border between the two nations as an international boundary.
• Subsequently, boundary strip maps were agreed upon and signed by both countries.
• Despite this, the Bhutanese National Assembly, or Tshogdu, felt it was time for Bhutan to establish direct diplomatic relations, which went against Article 2 of the 1949 treaty with India.

Bhutan’s growing assertion

• In the 1960s, Bhutan began to assert its economic independence by encouraging direct economic relations with countries beyond India for its development.
• Bhutan negotiated with a Swedish company to establish a paper factory and invited French nuns to improve medicinal services.
• In 1961, Bhutan and India signed a pact to harness the Jaldhaka River for hydroelectric power, with Bhutan receiving a free supply of 250 kilowatts. The project was completed in 1966.
• India also built a 120-mile road at the Assam border to connect with Bhutan and constructed roads within Bhutan.
• Despite India's assurances of military support, Bhutan was concerned about India's ability to defend it against China, especially during the 1962 Sino-Indian War when Indian troops crossed into Bhutanese territory.
• Bhutan emphasized its sovereignty, asserting that the 1949 treaty was not a defense pact.
• In 1962, Bhutan joined the Colombo Plan with India's assistance, gaining international recognition.
• By 1968, Bhutan was attending international conferences like UNCTAD and restricting unauthorized foreign entries, including Indians.
• In 1969, Bhutan introduced its own currency, and by 1970, it established a foreign affairs department.
• Bhutan was admitted to the United Nations in 1971, with India's support, marking a significant step in its journey towards international recognition.

Indian-Nepal

• India emphasized the importance of maintaining the integrity and territorial security of its smaller neighbors.

Jawaharlal Nehru's Stance on Nepal:

• On December 6, 1950, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru stated in Parliament the significance of the Himalayas as a protective barrier for India.
• Nehru expressed concern over any potential threats to Nepal, linking its stability directly to India's security.
• On March 17, 1950, Nehru emphasized that while a military alliance with Nepal was unnecessary, any foreign invasion of Nepal would pose a threat to India.

Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, 1950:

• The treaty reflected Nehru's proactive approach towards Nepal amid the growing Nepali Congress movement against the Rana regime.
• The treaty stipulated that both India and Nepal would not tolerate any foreign threats to each other's security.
• Both nations were obligated to inform each other of any serious disputes with neighboring countries that could affect their friendly relations.
• The treaty established a "special relationship" between India and Nepal, granting Nepalese citizens the same economic and educational rights as Indian citizens in India.
• Indians received preferential treatment in Nepal compared to other nationalities.
• The Indo-Nepal border remained open, allowing citizens of both countries to cross freely without passports or visas.
• While Nepalese could own property and work in India without restrictions, Indians faced limitations on property ownership and government employment in Nepal.

Growing Assertion of Nepal

• Rana rule in Nepal, however, collapsed within three months of signing the Treaty.
• As the number of Indians living and working in Nepal’s Terai region increased and India's involvement in Nepal’s politics deepened in the 1960s and beyond, Nepal grew uncomfortable with the special relationship.
• The end of Rana rule was hastened by China's re-establishment of control in Tibet.
• Nepal's quest for security gained new momentum after the 1962 Sino-Indian conflict, especially after India granted asylum to Nepali political dissidents opposed to King Mahendra’s takeover in December 1960.
• Other significant developments included the signing of a Treaty of Peace and Friendship with China in April 1960 and the opening of the Chinese Embassy in Kathmandu that August.
• Additionally, a 1961 agreement with China to construct a highway from Kodari, on the Nepal-Tibet border, to Kathmandu aimed to enhance Nepal’s strategic options, as the capital was then linked by road only with India.
• Tensions peaked in the mid-1970s when Nepal sought substantial changes in the trade and transit treaty and criticized India’s annexation of Sikkim in 1975.
• In 1975, King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev proposed that Nepal be recognized internationally as a zone of peace, garnering support from China and Pakistan.
• From New Delhi’s perspective, the king’s proposal was unnecessary as long as it did not contradict the 1950 treaty.

History of Nepal’s Assertiveness

• On April 21, 1947, before the British left India, Nepal was recognized as an independent nation by the United States.
• On April 25, 1947, Nepal and the U.S. established diplomatic and consular relations through a friendship and commerce agreement.
• In May 1949, Nepal also established ambassador-level diplomatic relations with France.

Nepal's Diplomatic Relations with Major Powers:

• Even before Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru made critical remarks about Nepal, the country had formed diplomatic ties with the United Kingdom, the United States, and France.
• This made it difficult for India to take any strong action against Nepal, as it had done with some Indian princely states.

Nepal's International Engagements and Security Focus:

• During the late Rana regime, Nepal expanded its international relationships to boost its global standing and visibility.
• A significant moment was Nepal's attempt to join the United Nations in 1947, which was postponed due to Cold War politics and only realized on December 15, 1955.
• Nepal's successful bids for non-permanent membership on the UN Security Council reflected its pursuit of security and foreign policy objectives.
• In 1955, Nepal took part in the Afro-Asian Conference in Bandung, following its attendance at the Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi in March 1947.
• In 1961, King Mahendra represented Nepal at the inaugural Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) summit in Belgrade.

Nepal’s Foreign Policy and Relations with Pakistan:

• King Mahendra’s emphasis on national security was evident when he stated at the NAM summit that Nepal opposed any form of domination over countries.
• Nepal strengthened its foreign policy by establishing diplomatic ties with Pakistan in 1960 and opening an embassy there in 1964.
• During President Yahya Khan's visit to Nepal in September 1970, both leaders agreed on the importance of non-interference in the internal affairs of countries, highlighting a key aspect of Nepal’s foreign policy.

India-Sri Lanka

• Shortly after gaining independence on 4 February 1948, the new Sinhalese-dominated government of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) introduced the Ceylon Citizenship Bill in Parliament.

Discriminatory Purpose of the Bill:

• While the Bill outwardly aimed to provide a means of obtaining citizenship, its true intent was to discriminate against Indian Tamils—who had been brought by the British from Tamil Nadu to work in plantations.
• The Bill required applicants to prove that their father was born in Ceylon, effectively demanding proof of at least third-generation immigration.

Challenges for Indian Tamils:

• Most Indian Tamils could not meet this requirement because they rarely had the necessary documents to prove their lineage, as births were seldom registered.
• Those who were third-generation immigrants often lacked the documentation needed for citizenship.

Opposition and Passage of the Bill:

• The Bill faced strong opposition in Parliament from the Ceylon Indian Congress, which represented Indian Tamils, and from leftist Sinhalese parties.
• Despite the opposition, the Bill was passed by Parliament on 20 August 1948 and became law on 15 November 1948, just 285 days after Ceylon's independence from Britain.

Impact of the Bill:

• Only about 5,000 Indian Tamils qualified for citizenship under the new law.
• More than 700,000 people, approximately 11% of the population, were denied citizenship and rendered stateless.

Nehru-Kotelawala Pact, 1954

Background of the Nehru-Kotelawala Pact:

• On January 18, 1954, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) Prime Minister John Kotelawala signed the Nehru-Kotelawala Pact.
• The agreement aimed to address the issue of Indian Tamils in Ceylon and their citizenship status.

Key Provisions of the Pact:

• India agreed to repatriate any Indian Tamil who wished to return and obtain Indian citizenship.
• The pact did not automatically grant Indian citizenship to those who did not qualify for Ceylon citizenship.

Implications of the Pact:

• The agreement highlighted the complexities of citizenship and migration issues between India and Ceylon.
• It reflected the broader post-colonial context of nation-building and identity in South Asia.

Sirima-Shastri Pact, 1964

Sirima-Shastri Pact (Indo-Ceylon Agreement):

• Date: 30 October 1964
• Signatories: Indian Prime Minister Lal Shastri and Ceylon Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike

Key Provisions:

• India agreed to repatriate 525,000 Indian Tamils.
• Another 300,000 Indian Tamils were offered Ceylon citizenship.
• The fate of 150,000 Indian Tamils was to be decided later.

India-Pakistan

• Relations between India and Pakistan have been shaped by the violent partition of British India in 1947, the ongoing Kashmir dispute, and several military conflicts.
• When the British Raj ended in 1947, India was divided into two independent nations: the Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.

Early Relations:

• Initially, India and Pakistan established diplomatic relations after gaining independence. However, the violent partition and territorial disputes quickly strained their relationship.

Military Conflicts:

• Since independence, India and Pakistan have fought three major wars, one undeclared war, and numerous armed skirmishes and military stand-offs.
• The Kashmir dispute has been the central issue in most conflicts, except during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971, which led to the creation of Bangladesh from East Pakistan.

Partition Violence:

• After partition, around half a million people(Muslims and Hindus) were killed in communal riots.
• Millions of Muslims moved to Pakistan, while Hindus and Sikhs migrated to India, marking one of the largest population transfers in modern history.
• Both countries accused each other of failing to protect minorities during this mass migration, further escalating tensions.

Princely States and Accession:

• At the time of partition, over 600 princely states were given the choice to join either India or Pakistan.
• Most Muslim-majority princely states joined Pakistan, while most Hindu-majority states acceded to India.
• The decisions of some princely states would significantly impact India-Pakistan relations in the following years.

The Liaquat–Nehru Pact or Delhi Pact, 1950

Background:

• The Delhi Pact was a treaty between India and Pakistan aimed at addressing issues related to minorities and refugees following the Partition of India.

Key Provisions of the Delhi Pact:

• Refugees were allowed to return to their homes without harm.
• Abducted women and looted property were to be returned.
• Forced conversions were not recognized.
• Minority rights were confirmed and protected.

Signatories:

• The treaty was signed in New Delhi on April 8, 1950, by Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru of India and Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan of Pakistan.

Purpose of the Treaty:

• The treaty aimed to safeguard the rights of minorities in both countries and prevent further conflict between India and Pakistan.
• It was a response to the challenges faced by minorities post-Partition and sought to establish a framework for their protection.

Minority Commissions:

• As part of the treaty,minority commissions were established in both India and Pakistan to oversee and ensure the rights of minorities.

Shyama Prasad Mukherjee's Opposition:

• Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, a prominent political figure, resigned from the Indian Cabinet on April 6, 1950, in protest against the Delhi Pact.
• Mukherjee strongly disagreed with Nehru's decision to invite Liaquat Ali Khan and the agreement to set up minority commissions.

Mukherjee's Concerns:

• He believed that Pakistan should be held accountable for the mass exodus of Hindu refugees from East Pakistan, who fled due to religious persecution and state-sanctioned violence.
• Mukherjee viewed Nehru's actions as an act of appeasement towards Pakistan.

Public Perception:

• Mukherjee's stance resonated with many, especially in West Bengal, where he was seen as a hero for opposing the treaty.

Junagadh dispute

• Junagadh, a state in southwestern Gujarat, India, was separated from Pakistan by other territories, despite being ruled by a Muslim Nawab, Mahabat Khan, in a predominantly Hindu population.
• On August 15, 1947, Nawab Mahabat Khan acceded Junagadh to Pakistan, which was confirmed by Pakistan on September 15, 1947. However, India contested this accession because Junagadh was not contiguous to Pakistan and had a Hindu majority that preferred to join India.
• India's argument was that Junagadh was surrounded by Indian territory on three sides, while Pakistan claimed the right to the state based on the ruler's decision and the state's coastline allowing for maritime links.
• As tensions rose, Indian Home Minister Sardar Patel feared that allowing Junagadh to join Pakistan would incite communal unrest in Gujarat. India offered Pakistan a chance to reverse the accession and hold a plebiscite in Junagadh.
• In response, Indian authorities took drastic measures, including cutting off supplies to Junagadh, severing communication links, and deploying troops. By October 26, 1947, the Nawab and his family fled to Pakistan amid clashes with Indian forces.
• On November 7, facing internal collapse, Junagadh's court invited the Indian government to take over the administration. Despite protests from Pakistan, India accepted the invitation and occupied Junagadh on November 9, 1947.
• A plebiscite in February 1948 overwhelmingly favored accession to India, solidifying India's claim over Junagadh.

Kashmir's Accession Dilemma:

• Kashmir, a princely state with a Muslim majority ruled by a Hindu king, Maharaja Hari Singh, faced a significant dilemma during the partition of India.
• Initially, Maharaja Hari Singh wished to keep Kashmir independent, similar to Switzerland, and proposed a standstill agreement to both India and Pakistan. While Pakistan accepted this offer, India declined.
• Despite the agreement, armed Pakistani forces invaded Kashmir in October 1947, leading to urgent appeals from the Maharaja to India for military assistance to protect the state.
• Following the advice of Lord Mountbatten, the Acting Governor-General of India, Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession to India on October 26, 1947, allowing Indian troops to enter Kashmir to defend against the invaders.
• This accession was formalized the next day, making Jammu and Kashmir a part of India under the Indian Independence Act 1947.
• Indian forces were airlifted to Srinagar to secure the airport and push back the invading troops. The conflict continued until a ceasefire was declared, leading to U.N. arbitration and the promise of a plebiscite.
• Over time, Kashmir was divided between India and Pakistan, with significant territorial changes, including the establishment of Azad Kashmir in Pakistan and China's occupation of Aksai Chin. The Line of Control (LoC) was established to demarcate the ceasefire line, evolving from the 1947 conflict and formalized in the 1972 Simla Agreement.

India-China

• Jawaharlal Nehru envisioned a "resurgent Asia" based on friendship between China and India, the two largest Asian nations.
• Nehru's idea of an internationalist foreign policy was guided by the Panchsheel principles, which he initially thought were shared by China.
• However, this vision faced challenges due to conflicting interests in Tibet, a region important for both countries historically.
• On October 1, 1949, the People's Liberation Army defeated the Kuomintang in China, establishing the People's Republic of China (PRC). India became an independent dominion on August 15, 1947, and later a federal democratic republic on January 26, 1950.
• India aimed to maintain cordial relations with China and revive ancient friendly ties. It was among the first countries to recognize the PRC diplomatically.
• Mao Zedong, the Chairman of the Communist Party of China, viewed Tibet as an essential part of China and sought to bring it under direct control.
• Mao perceived Indian concerns over Tibet as interference in China's internal affairs. The PRC aimed to end Lamaism(Tibetan Buddhism) and feudalism in Tibet, which it did through military force in 1950.
• To avoid conflict with the PRC, Nehru assured Chinese leaders that India had no political or territorial ambitions in Tibet, seeking only to maintain traditional trading rights.
• With India's support, Tibetan delegates signed an agreement in May 1951 recognizing PRC sovereignty while ensuring the continuation of Tibet's existing political and social system.
• Direct negotiations between India and the PRC began in a positive atmosphere, aided by India's role in mediating a ceasefire in the Korean War(1950–1953). India established diplomatic relations with the PRC on April 1, 1950.

Signing Panch Sheel

• India and the People's Republic of China (PRC) signed an eight-year agreement regarding Tibet.
• The agreement established the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence(Panch Shila) as the foundation for India-China relations.

Nehru's Strategy and Criticism:

• Critics viewed the Panch Sheel as naive.
• Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru believed that, lacking the means or a clear defense policy for the Himalayan region, India's best security option was to create a psychological buffer zone following the loss of Tibet as a physical buffer.

Diplomatic Sentiment in the 1950s:

• During the 1950s, India's diplomatic approach towards China was often summarized by the phrase "Hindi-Chini bhai-bhai," which translates to "Indians and Chinese are brothers."

Cultural Contacts

• Jawaharlal Nehru, alongside diplomatic efforts, aimed to foster direct dialogue between the peoples of India and China through cultural and literary exchanges.
• In 1957, Rammanohar Sinha, a renowned Indian artist from Visva-Bharati Santiniketan and the original decorator of the Indian Constitution, was sent to China on a Government of India fellowship to promote cross-cultural connections.
• Accompanying Sinha were noted Indian scholar Rahul Sankrityayan and diplomat Natwar Singh, while Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan also visited the People’s Republic of China (PRC).
• During his stay in China from 1957 to 1959, Sinha not only showcased Indian art but also learned Chinese painting and lacquer-work. He had the opportunity to meet prominent Chinese leaders, including Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai.

Boundary problem in western part

• The Indian government initially relied on the Johnson Line to define its western boundary, which included the disputed area of Aksai Chin.
• In 1954, under Prime Minister Nehru, India revised its maps to show Aksai Chin as part of its territory, despite the area being marked as "undemarcated" earlier.
• The Chinese government constructed a long road in the 1950s that partially ran through Aksai Chin, an area India claimed. This road connected Xinjiang and western Tibet, with a portion south of the Johnson Line.
• India was unaware of this road until 1957, when Chinese maps published in 1958 revealed its existence.

India's Stance:

• Prime Minister Nehru asserted that Aksai Chin had been part of India for centuries and that the northern border was not open to negotiation.

China's Argument:

• Chinese Minister Zhou Enlai contended that the border was never clearly defined, and the Macartney-MacDonald Line was the only proposed boundary, which included Aksai Chin within Chinese territory.

Escalation of Tensions:

• Initially, despite differences in maps and some border skirmishes, Chinese leaders reassured India that there were no serious territorial disputes.
• However, after the discovery of the Chinese road in Aksai Chin in 1958, conflicts at the border and Indian protests increased significantly.

Boundary problem in eastern part

• In January 1959, Premier Zhou Enlai of the People's Republic of China (PRC) wrote to Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru regarding the border dispute between India and China.
• Zhou rejected Nehru's argument that the border was based on treaty and custom, emphasizing that no Chinese government had ever accepted the McMahon Line as legal.
• The McMahon Line, established in the 1914 Simla Convention, defined the eastern section of the border between India and Tibet. However, China did not recognize Tibet as a sovereign entity, rendering the treaty invalid in their eyes.
• Zhou proposed a compromise where China would give up its claim to most of northeastern India in exchange for India's abandonment of its claim to Aksai Chin.
• The Indian government rejected this proposal, feeling that it would be humiliating and unequal to settle the dispute through an uncompensated loss of territory, given the domestic public opinion constraints.

Asylum to Dalai Lama

• China and India faced increased tensions over the issue of granting asylum to the Dalai Lama, the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people.
• In 1959, widespread destruction of Buddhist monasteries and land confiscations in Tibet by the Chinese government led to significant discontent among Tibetans.
• Amidst a Tibetan uprising, the Dalai Lama and some insurgents fled towards India.
• Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was torn between allowing the Tibetan refugees, including the Dalai Lama, into India or denying them asylum.
• On March 30, 1959, Nehru announced in the Lok Sabha that a large group attempting to cross the Indian border from Tibet would not be permitted entry.
• However, the continuous border crossings and pressure from the Indian Buddhist community and moral considerations led to the acceptance of the Dalai Lama's entry.
• This decision further angered China and strained Sino-Indian relations.

Indo-China War, 1962

• The People’s Republic of China accused India of expansionism and imperialism in Tibet and the Himalayan region.
• China claimed 104,000 km² of territory that India considered sovereign, demanding a “rectification” of the border.

Launch of Chinese Attack:

• On October 10, 1962, China launched a massive attack on Indian posts.
• By the next day, the Chinese had captured Thagla Ridge, a traditional Indo-Tibetan border, and advanced deep into Indian territory.

Ceasefire and Withdrawal:

• After extensive deliberations, a ceasefire was declared.
• The Chinese agreed to withdraw to the line as it was on September 8, 1962.

Diplomatic Exchanges and Settlements:

• An intense exchange of notes occurred between the two governments, aiming to settle the matters.

Impact on India:

• The Chinese aggression had serious consequences for India’s internal situation and foreign policy.
• Internally, the invasion caused economic imbalance, inflation, and increased taxes.
• It also significantly impacted India’s foreign policy, highlighting the need for defence requirements.
• Before 1962, the Non-alignment movement was not linked to defence concerns. After the aggression, priority shifted to defence arrangements.