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Independence and Decolonization in the Middle East

• After World War II, European empires in the Middle East started to fall apart. France left Syria and Lebanon in 1946 due to struggles with local populations. The British withdrew from Palestine in 1948, leading to the creation of Israel from a large part of Palestine, with the rest forming Jordan. Treaties and agreements also led to British withdrawals from Egypt and Iraq, with Sudan gaining independence as well.
• Though European empires seemed to dissolve in the 1950s, former colonial powers, now including the United States, maintained a presence in the region, focusing on controlling oil production within the context of Cold War tensions. Historian Albert Hourani described this period as a complex interaction between stable societies wanting to preserve their identities and the need to adapt to a changing world dominated by external powers.

Historical Background:

• To understand independence and decolonization in the Middle East, one must look back to the 19th century, when the British, French, and Ottomans exerted control over different parts of the region. Nationalist sentiments opposed this foreign dominance. Groups like the National Party in Egypt and the Young Ottomans promoted the idea of autonomy. Nationalist demonstrations challenging British, French, and Ottoman rule emerged, with Arab and Turkish nationalism gaining traction, while different nationalist currents in Iran envisioned various futures for the country.
• The relationship between colonies and their colonizers significantly influenced both sides. For instance, increased French exploitation of Algeria intensified resistance among Algerians, fostering a sense of nationalism that clashed with colonial reality. This growing political, economic, geographic, and religious identity set Middle Easterners apart from Europeans.

World War I and the Seeds of Independence:

• Some of the earliest efforts for independence or self-determination emerged during World War I. In 1916, the British promised independence to Hussein ibn Ali, the emir of Mecca, in exchange for his support against the Ottomans. Simultaneously, Britain and France signed the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement, envisioning an independent Arab State or a confederation of states post-war, though the agreement was deliberately vague about the roles of each power in this "independent" state. 
• The postwar Middle East was to be divided among the Allies, with France and Britain prepared to recognize and protect an independent Arab state or confederation under an Arab chief.

Mandates and Nationalism:

• After the war, Britain and France divided the Middle East into new territories called mandates, with the stated goal of guiding these regions toward independence. However, they primarily advanced their own interests, leading to Arab resentment. Throughout the 19th century, various nationalist groups organized against imperial rule, not only against the British and French but also against the Ottoman Turks. In the Arab countries, nationalism, initially among educated elites, spread to all sectors as promised self-determination failed to materialize amid ongoing occupation and colonial control.
• Nationalist movements in Turkey and Iran gained momentum in the late 19th century, with modern states emerging in the 1910s. Over the 20th century, decolonization took different forms in these regions, shaping the new states and societies that emerged.

The Development of Arab Nationalism

• Arab nationalism remains a significant force in the contemporary world. The term "Arab" carries historical complexities, often referring to individuals whose primary language is Arabic. Similarly, "Arab nationalism" can denote both Pan-Arabism and independence movements within Arabic-speaking nations.
• During the 1850s and 1860s, there was a burgeoning sense of Arab identity, reflected in a renewed interest in the 'Abbasid period (circa 750 to 1258). Accounts of the 'Abbasid era's grandeur, wealth, and intellectual achievements inspired a sense of pride and solidarity among Arabs.
• By the late 19th century and into the early 20th century, a new literate class emerged in cities like Baghdad, Cairo, and Damascus, advocating for the concept of Arab "nations." This emerging intelligentsia not only promoted national solidarity but also proposed societal organization and plans for independent development. Arabs sought to free themselves from Ottoman control while managing the influence of European nation-states.
• World War I weakened Ottoman power but temporarily increased British and French dominance over the socioeconomic development of the Arab world.
• In 1913, the Arab National Congress called for greater autonomy for the Arab provinces within the declining Ottoman Empire. Similar demands were directed at the British and French, whose established influence was deeply resented by Arabs.
• As World War I began in 1914, Arab demands started to challenge Britain’s position in the region, especially as Germany sought to exploit anti-British sentiment. The Germans reached out to Hussein, the Sherif of Mecca, who had significant influence over regional Muslim populations. Hussein initially cooperated with the Germans until June 1915. Another key figure for the Germans was Ibn Saud, a powerful leader in the Arabian Peninsula.
• Later in 1915, Hussein re-established friendly relations with the British, seeking their assistance in negotiations aimed at achieving Arab freedom from Ottoman rule.
• In 1916, while offering support for an "Arab Confederation," the British secretly signed the Sykes-Picot agreement with the French, outlining plans for the division of Arab territories. This agreement was kept from the Arabs but was eventually revealed by Bolshevik Russia, alarming various Arab nationalist groups as their aspirations for sovereignty seemed to be fading.
• The year 1917 marked a pivotal moment in Middle Eastern geopolitics with the Balfour Declaration, issued in November. In a letter to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour expressed Britain’s support for establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine. He stipulated that this should not undermine the civil and religious rights of existing Palestinian inhabitants. The ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict reflects the complexities arising from this declaration.
• The Arab Revolt against the Ottomans, which began in 1916, concluded in 1918 with Palestine and Syria liberated from Ottoman control. However, this led to British dominance rather than the anticipated independence for the Arabs.

Following World War I, Arabs expected the British to grant them independence. Instead, the 1919 agreements between the French and British divided the Middle East between them—Britain controlling Mesopotamia (Iraq), Palestine, and present-day Jordan, while France managed Syria and Lebanon. Only remote desert areas were free from British-French control. These territories were officially designated as mandates under the League of Nations.

• From the 1920s to the 1960s, Arab nationalism evolved into a formidable force, exemplified by the establishment of the League of Arab States. Formed by Egypt, Lebanon, Iraq, Syria, Transjordan, Yemen, and Saudi Arabia, this league demonstrated Arab unity and cooperation in shaping a future for the Middle Eastern peoples.
• As individual nation-states emerged, each with its distinct identity, a new era unfolded in the western and southwestern parts of Asia.

The Emergence of Modern Nation-States

• In this section, we will briefly explore the process of decolonization and modernization in various countries of the Middle East. Due to the large number of nation-states in the region, our focus on individual countries will be concise.
• A significant factor influencing all countries in the Middle East was the discovery of oil in the 1920s and 1930s. While oil production greatly impacted the economies of these countries, by the 1950s, it also began to influence the global economy. This shift had profound effects on the geopolitical dynamics of the region.

Bahrain:

• Geography and History: Bahrain is an archipelago of thirty-three islands in the Persian Gulf, with a history of trade and occupation by various powers, including the Persians, Omanis, Portuguese, and British.
• British Protectorate: From 1861 to 1971, Bahrain was under British protection. The ruling Al Khalifa family, who arrived in the mid-eighteenth century, navigated through various occupations. In 1971, under the leadership of ‘Isā ibn Salmān Al Khalifā, Bahrain gained independence from British control.
• Independence and International Relations: Bahrain declared independence in 1971 following Britain’s withdrawal of troops from the Gulf region. It signed a treaty of friendship with Britain, marking the end of the protectorate. Bahrain later joined the United Nations and the Arab League. It is now a constitutional monarchy where the emir passes power to his eldest son.
• Oil Discovery and Economic Development: Bahrain was one of the first Gulf states to benefit from oil profits after the discovery of oil in 1932. The revenue from oil has enabled the country to provide high-quality education and healthcare for its citizens. Despite these advancements, unemployment remains an issue, and tensions exist between the ruling Sunni minority and the poorer Shi’ite majority.
• Foreign Relations: Bahrain maintains good relations with its Gulf neighbors, other Arab nations, and Western countries like Britain and the United States. Its diversified economy suggests a positive future for the small kingdom.

Egypt:

• French and British Control: Egypt was under joint French and British control from the early 19th century until 1882. This period was marked by the dual control known as caise de la dette.
• Nationalist Resistance: ‘Urābī Pasha Al-Misrī, a nationalist Egyptian army officer, led a revolt against foreign officers in 1881, advocating for "Egypt for Egyptians." His growing popularity prompted the Egyptian ruler to seek British and French help to suppress him.
• British Domination: After the British and French bombarded Alexandria in 1882, Britain took control of Egypt, establishing it as a protectorate in 1914. Despite formal independence in 1936, Egypt remained under British influence until 1953.
• Nationalism and Independence: Egyptian nationalism grew throughout the early 20th century, especially during World War I when the British declared Egypt a protectorate. The Wafd party, led by Sa’d Zaghlūl, became prominent in demanding autonomy for Egypt after the war.
• Republic and Reform: Following King Farouk’s overthrow in 1952, Egypt became a republic under Gamal Abdul Nasser. Nasser introduced social and land reforms, promoting a policy known as Arab Socialism. Despite initial conflicts with Western powers, Nasser improved relations with Britain and the United States by 1961.
• Palestine and Internal Challenges: The unresolved issue of Palestine and challenges from the Islamist Muslim Brotherhood posed significant threats to Egypt’s stability. Nasser’s modernization efforts faced resistance from Islamic conservatives.
• Economic Struggles: In the late 20th century, Egypt faced economic difficulties despite oil and cotton exports. The growing population did not benefit from these exports, leading to discontent and a rise in fundamentalist Islamist groups.
• Post-World War II: Egypt’s role in World War II and its aftermath saw fluctuating political power, with the Wafd party and the Muslim Brotherhood vying for influence. The 1952 revolution and subsequent events solidified Egypt's nationalist and anti-British sentiments, leading to greater independence and involvement in Arab affairs.

Iran:

• Since the early 1900s, this Middle Eastern nation, now called the Islamic Republic of Iran, has experienced significant political and ideological shifts.
• The Qājār dynasty ruled Iran from 1796 until 1925, when Reza Khan, later known as Reza Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty, seized power and established the Pahlavi dynasty, with his descendants inheriting the throne.
• During the 19th century, European influence in Iran increased, leading to public resentment towards the shahs due to their extravagant lifestyles and the resources spent to appease Europeans. This discontent united merchants and Shī’ite clergy (ūlāma) against the shah. Over time, landlords also joined the movement, advocating for democratic reforms inspired by Western ideologies.
• After World War I, the Russians withdrew from northern Iran, leaving the British as the dominant European presence. In 1921, Britain withdrew under international pressure. That same year, Reza Khan, an Iranian army officer, led a coup, gaining control of the armed forces. As war minister under the last Qājār ruler, Reza Khan built a strong army and restored political stability to a chaotic Iran. In 1925, he deposed the ruler and was crowned shah with the ūlamā's approval.
• Reza Shah’s government began to exert control over various aspects of people's lives. In 1935, the country’s name was changed from Persia to Iran.
• In the 1960s and 1970s, the Shah aimed to modernize and Westernize Iran using oil wealth. He launched the “White Revolution,” which expanded suffrage to women and introduced limited land reforms.
• However, the oil wealth was unevenly distributed, leading to widespread discontent, particularly from Islamic officials like Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. To suppress dissent and maintain good relations with Western nations, the Shah became increasingly repressive. He promised to uphold Islamic principles, support Palestinians, and halt oil exports to Israel and South Africa, but failed to deliver on these promises.
• In January 1979, after losing the support of the army, the Shah fled Iran. Shortly after, Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile in Paris and sparked an Islamic revolution that established the Islamic Republic of Iran.
• The Republic is a theocratic state with an elected president and a unicameral Islamic Consultative Assembly.
• From 1980 to 1988, Iran engaged in a brutal war with Iraq after Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded Iran. Despite substantial oil production from nationalized oilfields, Iran faced ongoing economic challenges due to a lack of economic diversification and foreign investment.
• Iran remains somewhat isolated in the Middle East, maintaining strained relations with most Arab neighbors and having difficult ties with Western nations.

Iraq:

• Iraq was placed under a British mandate in 1919 after World War I, but British presence in the region predates this formal arrangement and was a source of local resentment. The mandate system only intensified these feelings.
• In response to Iraqi revolts against British rule in the 1920s, the mandate system was revised, leading to the establishment of a provisional government under British control.
• Resistance to colonization grew stronger, and in June 1930, the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty granted Iraq independence, albeit with the condition of “full and frank consultations” with Great Britain on foreign policy matters. This arrangement allowed Britain to maintain influence over Iraq’s future relations, particularly with neighboring countries like Iran.
• Under the Hashemite monarchy, pro-British civilians governed Iraq until the 1950s. A military coup in 1958 ousted the Hashemites, and Iraq aligned itself with Egypt. As decolonization became more militant, Iraq experienced significant unrest until 1963, when a coalition of nationalist army officers and members of the Ba’ath Party established a socialist government.
• By 1968, the Ba’ath Party became the sole ruling authority in Iraq. Saddam Hussein, who had been a powerful figure behind the scenes, officially became president in 1979 and remained in power until 2003 when he was removed by a coalition of U.S. and U.K. forces.
• Despite being an oil-rich country, the benefits of oil wealth did not reach the Iraqi people, leading to deteriorating infrastructure, periodic rebellions by Kurdish and Shi’ite populations, economic sanctions from the United Nations, and involvement in wars with Iran, Kuwait, and the United States.
• These issues resulted in the depletion of national resources, financial bankruptcy, and a significant decline in living standards.
• In March 2003, the United States invaded Iraq, and as of 2006, the U.S. continued to occupy the country amid a violent and prolonged insurgency aimed at ending the occupation.

Jordan:

• Like many countries in the Arab world, Jordan strives to balance its rich ancient history with modern advancements. Jordan, formerly known as Transjordan, is bordered by several more powerful Arab nations and Israel, which has forced it to carefully manage its relationships with these countries.
• The land that is now Jordan was once part of Syria and under Ottoman rule. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire fell apart, and in 1922, the League of Nations divided the former Syria into present-day Syria, which became a French mandate, and Palestine and Transjordan, which became British mandates.
• Jordan gained independence in two phases. In December 1922, the British recognized Transjordan's constitutional independence under Emir Abdullah, although they kept control over the country. Full independence was achieved in March 1946, when Transjordan became a constitutional monarchy with Emir Abdullah as king. The country was renamed the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in 1949, with hopes of eventually including Palestine.
• However, other Arab nations, especially Egypt, opposed the idea of incorporating Palestine. In 1951, Abdullah was assassinated by a Palestinian youth in Jerusalem's al-Aqsā Mosque, partly due to his expansionist ideas. His son succeeded him but was quickly deposed due to mental health issues.
• In 1952, Prince Hussein, educated in Britain and only seventeen years old, became king. King Hussein is well-known for his efforts to maintain a stable balance of power in the Middle East. With the support of the United States, which aimed to replace Britain as the dominant Western power in the region, he managed to maintain good relations with several Arab nations, including Egypt and Saudi Arabia.
• As a small country with limited resources, Jordan has faced ongoing challenges such as chronic debt, poverty, unemployment, and water shortages. The Israeli occupation of the West Bank in 1967 further exacerbated these issues by causing Jordan to lose nearly half of its arable land.
• Arab refugees from Palestine constitute about one-third of Jordan's population and, although granted citizenship, remain largely unintegrated and dissatisfied. Despite these difficulties, Jordan boasts some of the best educational and medical systems in the Middle East. Since 1999, the country has been ruled by King Abdullah II.

Kuwait:

• Similar to other Gulf regions, Kuwait was initially under British protection from 1899 until it gained independence in 1961. Like Jordan, Kuwait is a small nation on the Persian Gulf that derives its wealth from oil production and must carefully navigate its relationships with neighboring countries.
• Sheikh Abdullāh al-Salem al-Sabāh was the first emir of independent Kuwait. It was Kuwait that initiated the termination of its relationship with Britain in 1961, although the British maintained a significant presence in the country for another decade.
• Kuwait was founded in the mid-eighteenth century by members of the Bāni Utūb clan who migrated to the area from central Arabia. Almost immediately after gaining independence, Kuwait faced threats from Iraqi military rulers. Iraq's expansionist ambitions in 1961 were initially countered by British military assistance and later by an Arab League force comprising troops from Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and the United Arab Republic, which successfully repelled the Iraqi army.
• In 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait again, leading to the costly Persian Gulf War, primarily led by the United States, to liberate Kuwait. Today, Iraq and Kuwait maintain a tense truce. To rebuild its infrastructure after the war, Kuwait spent over $160 billion.
• Kuwait is an oil-rich nation governed by a constitutional monarchy. In practice, the parliament acts mainly as an advisory body, and the ruling emirs from the Al-Sabāh family wield significant power. Like most Gulf states, Kuwait has a multicultural society due to the large number of expatriate workers, who actually outnumber native Kuwaitis.
• Kuwait's citizens enjoy a high standard of living, as the rulers invest a large portion of oil profits in public services, healthcare, education, and municipal services. Kuwait is a member of the Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC), a loose alliance of six states aimed at ensuring regional stability and promoting economic development. Kuwait's allies include Western nations as well as its Arab neighbors.

Lebanon:

• Lebanon stands out as one of the most cosmopolitan nations in the Middle East. Under French Mandate after World War I, it had a complex relationship with its colonial ruler. As World War II began, Lebanon sought to end French control. In 1943, overcoming their differences, Christian and Muslim leaders signed the National Pact, signaling a commitment to self-rule.

The Lebanese constitution, crafted by nationalists,recognized the country’s religious diversity. Political power was distributed as follows:

• President: Maronite Christian
• Prime Minister: Sunni Muslim
• Speaker of Parliament: Shi’ite Muslim
• Chief of Staff: Druze
• Parliament Seats: Divided 6 Christian to 5 Muslim

The constitution asserted Lebanon’s independence by revoking any laws that might threaten its autonomy. The French, displeased, arrested the president and suspended the constitution. However, international support from the United States, Britain, and Arab nations forced the French to recognize Lebanon’s sovereignty in December 1943.

In the following decades, Lebanon experienced stability, fostering economic growth and social progress. However, this period of promise was shattered in 1975 by a brutal civil war, Syrian occupation, and ongoing violence until 1991. The civil strife severely damaged the country’s infrastructure, strained Christian-Muslim relations, and led to soaring debt. Despite these challenges, Syria eventually withdrew from Lebanon.

Oman:

• Among Middle Eastern nations, Oman has the unique distinction of having achieved independence before the twentieth century. In the mid-seventeenth century, Omani tribes expelled the Portuguese from the region. Due to its strategic location, Oman became a valuable trading partner with various European countries, accumulating wealth even before the discovery of oil.
• However, it is essential to acknowledge that the British exerted significant influence in the region during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The British allied with Omani rulers in land ownership disputes, such as the reestablishment of Oman’s sovereignty over the Būraimī area, which Saudi Arabia also claimed. This alliance led to a reciprocal relationship between the two.
• Oman has been ruled for centuries by a sultan who serves as the head of state, prime minister, and minister of foreign affairs, finance, and defense. A consultative body called the majlis al-shūra assists the sultan in decision-making and policy formulation.
• Oman has only recently embarked on a path of modernization. The sultan’s previous refusal to liberalize the country was so rigid that it sparked an uprising by the Jibali hill tribes in 1964. The economy is entirely government-controlled, with public utilities, education, trade, commerce, and employment closely regulated.
• However, Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Bū Said has introduced modernizing policies, promising a brighter future for this strategically located nation-state.

Qatar:

• Qatar is a small country ruled by the ath-Thānī family and is known for being home to the popular Al-Jazeera television station.
• Like many other countries that were British mandates, Qatar was a British protectorate from the mid-1800s until the twentieth century.
• In 1971, Qatar gained independence. Before that, in 1968, Britain announced its plan to withdraw from the Gulf region.
• The ath-Thānī family negotiated with the sheikhs of neighboring areas, which would later become the United Arab Emirates. Qatar declared its independence from Britain but maintained relations through the Treaty of Friendship.
• After gaining independence, Qatar joined the Arab League and the United Nations.
• Qatar's economy relies heavily on oil and natural gas. The country is more liberal than many of its Arab neighbors and has a close relationship with the United States while maintaining a strong Arab identity.
• Qatar plays a small but important role in the discussions among the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries.

Saudi Arabia:

• Saudi Arabia is considered the leading kingdom in the Middle East. It achieved autonomy from the Ottoman Empire in 1902 and later from Hussein, the Sherif of Mecca, in 1924 when Ibn Saud and his Wahhābi tribesmen captured Mecca.
• The British made unsuccessful attempts to reconcile Ibn Saud with the Hashemite Hussein before 1924.
• In 1933, the Ibn Saud family became the uncontested rulers of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which remains a hereditary monarchy today.
• King Fahd bin Abd al-Az al-Saud(r. 1982–2005) transformed Saudi Arabia into the greatest economic power in the Middle East. Following his death, his half-brother Abdallah became king.
• Western powers have had varying degrees of influence in Saudi Arabia, but the country largely maintained its independence and sovereignty throughout the twentieth century.
• Saudi Arabia's leading role in the Middle East and globally is supported by its vast oil reserves, the largest in the world, its leadership in OPEC, and its religious significance as the caretaker of Mecca and Medina, the two holy cities of Islam.

Syria:

• Syria was initially part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under Feisal, the commander of the Arab forces and the third son of the Sherif of Mecca. However, Feisal's rule was short-lived as French forces attacked and occupied Syria.
• In 1922, Syria became a French mandate, facing a series of uprisings from 1925 to 1927. Syria declared its independence in 1941 and was recognized as an independent republic in 1944, but true independence was not achieved until 1946, when France withdrew its troops.
• The newly independent Syria adopted a republican form of government with a constitution requiring the president to be a Muslim. Since 1963, Syria has been governed by a succession of Ba’ath Party military governments, which have been suspicious of Western nations, leading to tensions.
• Syria is a diverse society with Muslims, Christians, Druze, Alawites, and a small Jewish minority. Its economy relies on textiles and handicrafts, but the country's infrastructure needs significant improvement to support economic growth and provide sustainable livelihoods for its inhabitants.

Turkey:

• The Republic of Turkey was established in 1923 after a War of Independence that ousted the Greeks from the formerly Ottoman territory. During World War I, European powers made agreements to divide the Ottoman Empire, but Turkey resisted these attempts.
• The Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 recognized Turkey's independence, largely due to the efforts of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who became the first president of the republic. The Ottoman caliphate was abolished, and Turkey became a secular republic in 1928.
• Under Atatürk's leadership, Turkey underwent significant modernization based on progressive and secular ideas. The country is governed as a parliamentary democracy with a constitution based on six principles: republicanism, nationalism, populism, secularism, statism, and revolutionism.
• Turkey's economy has experienced ups and downs due to political scandals, internal conflicts, and international issues, but the long-term outlook is relatively positive. Turkey seeks closer ties with European nations and aims to join the European Union (EU), although discussions have stalled due to domestic Islamist resistance and concerns about human rights.

The United Arab Emirates