South Africa-Apartheid to Democracy | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Union of South Africa

In 1910, the Union of South Africa was established through the unification of Transvaal, Orange Free State, Cape Colony, and Natal.

Population Composition:

• Black Africans (Bantus): 70%
• Whites of European origin: 18% (approximately 60% Dutch and 40% British)
• Mixed race (coloureds): 9%
• Asians: 3%

Discrimination Against Black People:

• Despite being the majority, black Africans faced severe discrimination, worse than that experienced by black people in the USA.
• Whites controlled politics and the economy, denying blacks the right to vote.
• Black workers, primarily men, were forced to perform manual labor in factories, gold mines, and on farms, often living in barracks away from their families.

Reserve Areas:

• Black people were expected to live in designated reserve areas, which constituted only about 7% of South Africa's total land.
• These reserves were insufficient for blacks to grow enough food or pay their taxes.
• Black Africans were prohibited from buying land outside these reserves.

Pass Laws:

• The government enforced pass laws to control the movement of blacks.
• A black person needed a pass to live in a town, showing employment with a white-owned business.
• Africans required passes to leave farms, change jobs, or even to obtain a new job.
• Many workers endured poor conditions under abusive employers due to these laws.
• Living conditions were harsh; for instance, in gold mines, Africans lived in single-sex compounds, sometimes sharing dormitories with up to 90 men.

Labor Restrictions:

• By law, black workers were prohibited from striking and barred from skilled jobs.
• The Natives’ Land Act of 1913 severely limited black land ownership, with blacks controlling only 7% of the land at that time.

Full Sovereignty:

• In 1931, the Union of South Africa achieved full sovereignty from the United Kingdom through the Statute of Westminster, eliminating the last British governmental powers over the country.

National Party and Apartheid:

• In 1948, the National Party went into power and intensified the racial segregation that had begun under Dutch and British colonial rule.

Introduction of Apartheid by Dr. Malan:

• After World War II, there were significant changes in the treatment of black Africans.
• In the 1948 general election, under Prime Minister D. F. Malan(1948-54), a new, officially structured policy called apartheid(meaning 'separateness') was introduced. This policy further tightened control over the black population.

Reasons for the Introduction of Apartheid:

• Following the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, white South Africans became concerned about the increasing racial equality within the Commonwealth. They were determined to maintain their racial supremacy.
• Most whites, particularly those of Dutch descent, opposed racial equality. The most extreme opposition came from the Afrikaner Nationalist Party, led by Dr. Malan, who believed in the superiority of the white race and the inferiority of non-whites.
• The Dutch Reformed Church, South Africa's official state church, supported racial inequality. It misinterpreted biblical passages to justify this belief, which was contrary to the views of most other Christian denominations that advocated for racial equality.
• The Broederbond, a secret Afrikaner organization, aimed to protect and preserve Afrikaner power.
• The Nationalists won the 1948 elections by promising to shield whites from the 'black threat' and to maintain racial purity among whites, ensuring continued white dominance.

The Main Features of Apartheid

Apartheid was a system of racial segregation in South Africa that aimed to keep black and white people completely separate from each other. Here are the main features of apartheid:

Separation of Blacks and Whites:

• Apartheid enforced strict separation between blacks and whites at all levels of society.
• In rural areas, blacks were forced to live in designated reserves, while in cities, they were confined to separate townships located at a distance from white residential areas.
• If a black township was deemed too close to a white area, the entire community could be uprooted and relocated to ensure greater separation.
• There were separate facilities for blacks and whites, including buses, trains, cafes, toilets, parks, hospitals, beaches, picnic areas, sports facilities, and even churches.
• Black children attended separate schools that offered a significantly inferior education compared to their white counterparts.

Complete Separation Was Impossible:

• Despite the efforts to separate races, complete separation was impossible because over half of the non-white population worked in white-owned mines, factories, and businesses.
• The economy would have collapsed if all non-whites had been relocated to reserves.
• Additionally, many white households employed African servants, further blurring the lines of separation.

Racial Classification and Identity Cards:

• Every individual was assigned a racial classification and issued an identity card.
• Strict pass laws required black Africans to remain in their reserves or townships unless they were traveling to a white area for work, in which case they would be issued passes. Unauthorized travel was prohibited without police permission.

Marriage and Sexual Relations:

• Marriage and sexual relationships between whites and non-whites were strictly forbidden to preserve the perceived purity of the white race.
• The police monitored individuals suspected of violating these rules.

Homeland System:

• The apartheid government attempted to divide South Africa into separate states, each intended to develop into a distinct nation-state for different ethnic groups.
• The Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959 established seven regions called Bantustans, based on original African reserves, with the goal of eventual self-governance.
• In 1969, the first Bantustan, the Transkei, was announced as "independent," but this was largely disregarded by the international community since South Africa maintained control over its economy and foreign affairs.
• The Bantustan policy was criticized because these areas comprised only about 13 percent of the country's total land, forcing over 8 million black people into these overcrowded and inadequate regions.
• Despite protests, the government continued this policy, and by 1980, two more African "homelands" were granted "independence."

No Political Rights:

• Africans were stripped of all political rights, and their representation in parliament, previously ensured by white MPs, was abolished.

Opposition to Apartheid

Inside South Africa:

• Opposition to apartheid within South Africa was extremely challenging. Anyone who opposed the system, including whites, faced severe punishment under the Suppression of Communism Act, being labeled a communist.
• Africans were prohibited from striking, and their political party, the African National Congress (ANC), was largely powerless.
• Despite these challenges, protests did occur:
• In 1952, Africans attempted to systematically break apartheid laws by entering white-only shops and places. Over 8,000 were arrested, and many were flogged. ANC leader Chief Albert Luthuli was imprisoned, and the campaign was halted.
• In 1955, the ANC, along with Asian and colored groups, held a significant meeting at Kliptown, where they introduced the Freedom Charter, which became the main ANC program.
• The Freedom Charter demanded equality before the law, freedom of assembly, movement, speech, religion, and the press, the right to vote, equal pay for equal work, a 40-hour work week, minimum wage, unemployment benefits, free medical care, and equal education.

Opposition by Church Leaders:

• Church leaders and missionaries, both black and white, spoke out against apartheid.

1957 Bus Boycott:

• The ANC organized a bus boycott in 1957 against fare increases on the route from their township to Johannesburg.
• Thousands of Africans walked to work for three months until the fares were reduced.

Sharpeville Massacre:

• Protests peaked in 1960 with a major demonstration against pass laws in Sharpeville, near Johannesburg.
• Police opened fire on the crowd, killing 67 Africans and wounding many others.
• This marked a turning point; until then, protests had been mostly non-violent. The brutality of the police convinced many black leaders that violence was the only response.

Spear of the Nation:

• The ANC’s armed wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation), led by Nelson Mandela, was formed to sabotage strategic targets.
• In 1961, there were bomb attacks in Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth, and Durban.
• However, the police quickly arrested most black leaders, including Mandela, who was sentenced to life imprisonment on Robben Island.

More About Nelson Mandela:

• Nelson Mandela joined the ANC and became a founding member of its Youth League.
• He gained prominence in the ANC’s 1952 Defiance Campaign, was appointed head of the ANC’s Transvaal chapter, and presided over the 1955 Congress of the People.
• Working as a lawyer, Mandela was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the Treason Trial from 1956 to 1961.
• Chief Luthuli continued with non-violent protests, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize after publishing his autobiography "Let My People Go," and was killed in 1967.
• Discontent grew in the 1970s as African wages lagged behind inflation.

Protest Against Afrikaans Language Imposition:

• In 1976, when the Transvaal authorities announced that Afrikaans was to be used in black African schools, massive demonstrations erupted near Johannesburg.
• Police opened fire on the crowd, killing at least 200 black Africans.
• Unlike previous protests, this one did not subside; it spread nationwide. The government responded with brutality, killing an additional 500 Africans over the next six months.

Opposition from the Commonwealth:

• Outside South Africa, opposition to apartheid came from the Commonwealth.
• In 1960, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan spoke out against apartheid during his Wind of Change Speech in Cape Town, acknowledging the rise of African nationalism.

The UN and OAU:

• The United Nations and the Organization of African Unity condemned apartheid, particularly criticizing South Africa’s occupation of South West Africa.
• The UN voted for an economic boycott of South Africa in 1962, but it was ineffective as not all member states supported it.
• Countries like Britain, the USA, France, West Germany, and Italy condemned apartheid publicly while continuing to trade with South Africa, supplying arms in hopes of South Africa being a bulwark against communism in Africa.
• As a result, South Africa largely ignored external protests until the late 1970s.

The End of Apartheid

P.W. Botha:

• In 1979, P.W. Botha became Prime Minister of South Africa and recognized the need for reform within apartheid.
• He aimed to preserve white control while addressing some of the most unpopular aspects of the system.

Factors Driving Change:

• International criticism from the Commonwealth, the United Nations, and the Organization of African Unity increased.
• External pressures intensified after the independence of the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique in 1975 and the African takeover of Zimbabwe in 1980, surrounding South Africa with hostile black states.
• Economic issues arose, with a recession in the late 1970s affecting many white South Africans, while the black population continued to grow.
• By 1980, whites made up only 16% of the population, down from 21% between the two world wars.
• African homelands were failing, marked by poverty, corruption, and lack of international recognition.
• The USA began to criticize South Africa’s racial policies, especially as it was improving its own treatment of black citizens during the 1970s.

Reforms by P.W. Botha:

• Botha introduced gradual changes to silence critics, allowing blacks to join trade unions and go on strike (1979) and elect their own local township councils (1981).
• A new constitution in 1984 established separate parliamentary houses for coloreds and Asians, but not for Africans, maintaining white control.
• Interracial marriages and sexual relations were permitted (1985), and the hated pass laws for non-whites were abolished (1986).

Limitations of Reforms:

• Botha was unwilling to meet the ANC's key demands for voting rights and full participation in governance.
• These reforms did not appease black Africans, who were determined to achieve full political rights.

25th Anniversary of Sharpeville Massacre (1985):

• Violence escalated on the anniversary of the Sharpeville massacre, with both sides committing excesses.
• The ANC targeted black councillors and police seen as collaborators with apartheid.
• Police killed over forty mourners at a funeral near Port Elizabeth (March 1985).
• A state of emergency was declared in July, extended nationwide by June 1986, allowing police to arrest without warrants and banning media from reporting on demonstrations.

Sanctions by the Commonwealth (1986):

• In August 1986, the Commonwealth (except Britain) imposed strong sanctions on South Africa, including bans on loans, oil sales, and cultural contacts.
• British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher advocated only voluntary investment bans, arguing that severe sanctions would harm black Africans by costing them jobs.
• Her stance caused bitterness within the Commonwealth, with leaders like Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi criticizing her for compromising principles for economic reasons.

USA Congress Sanction (1986):

• In September 1986, the USA Congress overrode President Reagan's veto to impose sanctions on South Africa, including stopping loans and banning imports of various goods.

Rise of Educated Black Middle Class:

• The black population was no longer solely uneducated laborers; a growing number of educated professionals emerged.
• Prominent figures like Desmond Tutu, who became the Anglican Archbishop of Cape Town and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984, held important positions.

Changed Views of the Church:

• The Dutch Reformed Church, which previously supported apartheid, now condemned it as incompatible with Christianity.

Moderation Among Whites:

• A majority of white South Africans recognized the difficulty in defending total exclusion of blacks from political life.
• They became resigned to the idea of eventual black majority rule, seeking to make the best of the situation.

F.W. de Klerk:

• F.W. de Klerk, elected President in 1989, was initially seen as cautious but privately committed to ending apartheid and accepting black majority rule.
• His challenge was to achieve this without further violence or civil war.

Steps Toward Ending Apartheid:

• De Klerk took bold steps to dismantle apartheid, releasing Nelson Mandela after 27 years in prison and legalizing the ANC.
• Most apartheid laws were repealed, and Namibia gained independence under a black government in 1990.
• Negotiations began in 1991 between the government and ANC to create a new constitution granting full political rights to blacks.

ANC’s Changed Attitude:

• The ANC aimed to present itself as a moderate party, avoiding plans for wholesale nationalization and assuring whites of their safety under black rule.
• Mandela advocated for reconciliation and condemned violence.

Challenges During Negotiations:

• The negotiations were prolonged and challenging, with de Klerk facing opposition from his National Party and extreme white racialist groups.
• The ANC was also in conflict with the Zulu Inkatha Freedom Party led by Chief Buthelezi.

Transition to Black Majority Rule

In the spring of 1993, successful talks led to the establishment of a power-sharing agreement to facilitate the transition to black majority rule in South Africa.

General Election and Coalition Government:

• A general election was held, resulting in the African National Congress (ANC) winning almost two-thirds of the votes.
• As per the agreement, a coalition government was formed with the ANC, the National Party, and Inkatha.
• Nelson Mandela became the first black President of South Africa, with Thabo Mbeki (black) and F.W. de Klerk (white) serving as vice-presidents.

Opposition and Achievement:

• A right-wing Afrikaner group opposed the new democratic order, threatening civil war, but ultimately failed to do so.
• Despite instances of violence and bloodshed, the transition from apartheid to black majority rule without civil war was a remarkable achievement, credited to both de Klerk and Mandela.

Mandela's Presidency

During his presidency, Nelson Mandela continued the previous government's liberal economic policies while introducing initiatives aimed at land reform, poverty alleviation, and expanding healthcare services.

Truth and Reconciliation Commission:

• One of Mandela's significant achievements was the establishment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission.
• This commission aimed to address human rights abuses during the apartheid regime through a process of acknowledgment and forgiveness rather than revenge.
• Despite spending 27 years in prison under apartheid, Mandela's commitment to forgiveness and reconciliation stood out as a commendable aspect of his leadership.

Retirement and Legacy:

• In 1999, Mandela chose not to seek re-election, retiring with a high reputation and widespread admiration for his statesmanship and restraint.
• He is often referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba, or as Tata, meaning "Father," and is celebrated as the "Father of the Nation."

Nelson Mandela: A Brief Overview

• Early Life and Activism: Nelson Mandela (1918-2013) was a South African activist and former president who played a crucial role in ending apartheid and advocating for human rights globally. He joined the African National Congress (ANC) in the 1940s and led both peaceful protests and armed resistance against the oppressive white minority regime in racially divided South Africa. Mandela was instrumental in the ANC's 1952 Campaign for the Defiance of Unjust Laws, organizing protests against discriminatory policies.
• Leadership and Legal Advocacy: In 1952, Mandela and Oliver Tambo established South Africa's first black law firm, providing free or low-cost legal counsel to those affected by apartheid. He promoted the Freedom Charter, ratified in 1955, and faced arrest and trial for treason in 1956, along with 155 other activists. Although acquitted, tensions within the ANC led to a split, and Mandela's approach shifted towards more radical methods after the Sharpeville massacre in 1960.
• Umkhonto we Sizwe and Imprisonment: In 1961, Mandela co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), the armed wing of the ANC, and led a sabotage campaign against the government. He was arrested in 1962 and sentenced to life imprisonment during the Rivonia Trial. Mandela's famous closing statement expressed his commitment to a democratic and free society, and he smuggled out political statements and drafts of his autobiography while in prison.
• International Advocacy and Release: Mandela became a global symbol of resistance against apartheid, with the "Free Nelson Mandela" campaign gaining international attention. He studied law through distance learning while imprisoned, and his release in 1990 marked a pivotal moment in South Africa's history.
• Presidency and Reconciliation: As president, Mandela led negotiations to end apartheid and establish a multiracial government, earning the Nobel Peace Prize with President de Klerk in 1993. He oversaw the first multiracial elections in 1994, becoming South Africa's first black president. Mandela focused on national reconciliation through the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and implemented social and economic programs to improve living standards for black South Africans.
• Legacy and Later Years: After leaving office in 1999, Mandela continued to champion peace and social justice, establishing the Nelson Mandela Foundation and The Elders. He became a prominent advocate for AIDS awareness and treatment programs, contributing to the fight against the epidemic in South Africa.