Decolonisation of Africa | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

The Role of World War II and the Atlantic Charter in African Decolonization

• After World War II, African countries began to push for independence from colonial rule. The war had seen British African colonies support the Allies, but there was no promise of independence for these nations in return. Instead, the war highlighted the importance of Africa as a supplier of essential raw materials, especially due to shortages caused by Japanese conquests in the Far East and U-boat patrols in the Atlantic. This necessity led to the establishment of local industries in Africa, which in turn spurred urbanization, the growth of trade unions, and increased literacy.
• In February 1941, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill outlined their vision for the postwar world in the Atlantic Charter, which included the principle of autonomy for imperial colonies. After the war, this principle was used to pressure Britain into granting more rights to its African colonies. However, the British still viewed these colonies as "immature" and introduced democratic governance only at local levels.
• The United Nations Charter of 1945 recognized the right of peoples to self-determination, leading to the rapid decline of colonialism within two decades. While the United States generally supported this idea, it also had to balance its relationships with European allies who still held colonial claims. The Cold War further complicated the U.S. stance, as it sought to prevent the spread of communism while also promoting decolonization.
• The U.S. used various means, including aid and military intervention, to encourage newly independent nations to adopt Western-aligned governments. Similarly, the Soviet Union tried to expand its influence in these new states. Many of these nations resisted such pressures, opting instead to focus on internal development and joining the nonaligned movement.

Decolonization was not a uniform process; some regions experienced peaceful transitions, while others faced prolonged revolutions. Some newly independent countries established stable governments quickly, while others struggled with dictatorship, military rule, or civil wars. The process of decolonization was intertwined with the Cold War and the activities of the United Nations.

The newly independent nations of the 1950s and 1960s significantly altered the balance of power within the United Nations. Membership grew from 35 in 1946 to 127 by 1970, with many new members advocating for continued decolonization. These nations, often non-white with developing economies and colonial legacies, sometimes found themselves at odds with European countries. They pushed the UN towards resolutions favoring independence for colonial states, reflecting the global shift away from colonialism.

Decolonization

By the 1930s, colonial powers had, sometimes unintentionally, fostered a small elite of leaders educated in Western universities and familiar with concepts like self-determination. These leaders, including prominent nationalists such as Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Kwame Nkrumah (Gold Coast, now Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanzania), Léopold Sédar Senghor (Senegal), and Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Côte d’Ivoire), emerged as key figures in the struggle for independence.

Kenya

Mau Mau Rebellion:

• Timeline: The Mau Mau Rebellion was a military conflict in Kenya from 1952 to 1960.
• Key Participants: Involved Kikuyu-dominated groups known as Mau Mau, British Army elements, the local Kenya Regiment (mostly British), auxiliaries, and anti-Mau Mau Kikuyu.
• British Response: The British, under Governor Sir Evelyn Baring, sought British and African troops, including the King’s African Rifles, and launched counter-insurgency operations with the support of Winston Churchill.
• Operation Anvil: Launched on April 24, 1954, effectively besieging Nairobi, screening occupants, and detaining Mau Mau supporters.
• Outcome: By the end of the emergency, 42% of the total insurgents were killed. The capture of Dedan Kimathi on October 21, 1956, marked the defeat of the Mau Mau.
• Challenges: Mau Mau struggled to gain widespread public support, partly due to British policies of divide and rule.
• Land Reforms: During this period, significant changes to land tenure occurred, including the Swynnerton Plan, which aimed to intensify agricultural development and consolidate land holdings.

Independent Kenya (1963):

• After suppressing the Mau Mau uprising, the British arranged for the election of six African members to the Legislative Council under a weighted franchise based on education.
• The 1958 colonial constitution increased African representation, but nationalists demanded a democratic franchise of “one man, one vote.”
• The first direct elections for native Kenyans to the Legislative Council occurred in 1957.
• Despite British hopes of handing power to “moderate” locals, the Kenya African National Union (KANU) led by Jomo Kenyatta formed the government before Kenya's independence on December 12, 1963.
• Kenyatta became the first leader of independent Kenya, serving as Prime Minister (1963–64) and then as President (1964–78). He is regarded as the founding father of the Kenyan nation and a Pan-Africanist.
• On December 12, 1964, Kenya was proclaimed a republic, with Kenyatta as the first president.

Gold Coast to Ghana: A Journey to Independence

• In 1947, the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC), led by the Big Six, called for self-government in the Gold Coast. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah formed the Convention People’s Party (CPP) with the motto “self-government now.” Nkrumah won a majority in the 1951 Gold Coast legislative election and became the leader of the Gold Coast’s government business.
• The Gold Coast declared independence from the United Kingdom on March 6, 1957, becoming the nation of Ghana. On July 1, 1960, following a constitutional referendum and presidential election, Nkrumah declared Ghana a republic, becoming the first President of Ghana.

The Road to Independence: Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia)

• In October 1923, Southern Rhodesia became a self-governing British colony after a referendum in 1922. During the World Wars, Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom, with Southern Rhodesia contributing more per capita to the war efforts than any other part of the Empire.
• In 1953, Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with Nyasaland (now Malawi) in the Central African Federation, which was dominated by Southern Rhodesia. However, growing African nationalism and dissent led to the dissolution of the federation in 1963, forming three separate divisions. Nyasaland became independent on July 6, 1964, and was renamed Malawi.
• While multiracial democracy was introduced in Northern Rhodesia (later Zambia) and Nyasaland, Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy minority rule. In Northern Rhodesia, elections in 1962 resulted in an African majority in the legislative council, leading to calls for secession from the federation and demands for full internal self-government.
• The federation was dissolved on December 31, 1963, and in January 1964, Kenneth Kaunda became the Prime Minister of Northern Rhodesia. The country faced internal conflict, including the Lumpa Uprising led by Alice Lenshina. Northern Rhodesia became the Republic of Zambia on October 24, 1964, with Kaunda as the first president.
• With Zambian independence, Ian Smith’s Rhodesian Front (RF) dropped the designation “Southern” in 1964 and issued a Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom on November 11, 1965. This declaration repudiated the British policy of “no independence before majority rule.” It was the first such act by a British colony since the American declaration of 1776.

UDI and Civil War (1965–1979)

• After the UDI, the British government sought United Nations sanctions against Rhodesia, leading to the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state in December 1966. The United Kingdom viewed the declaration as an act of rebellion but did not re-establish control by force. A guerrilla war ensued, with Joshua Nkomo’s Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe’s Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) launching operations against Rhodesia’s predominantly white government.
• ZAPU was supported by the Soviet Union and adopted a Marxist–Leninist ideology, while ZANU aligned with Maoism and the People’s Republic of China. Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, but this was unrecognized internationally. The internal conflict intensified, forcing Smith to negotiate with nationalist militants.
• In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with Bishop Abel Muzorewa and other African leaders, leading to the Internal Settlement. Elections held in April 1979 resulted in the United African National Council (UANC) winning a majority of parliamentary seats. Muzorewa became prime minister on June 1, 1979, and the country was renamed Zimbabwe Rhodesia.
• Following the fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in August 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to a constitutional conference at Lancaster House. The conference aimed to agree on the terms of an independence constitution and provide for elections supervised by the British.
• On December 21, 1979, the Lancaster House Agreement was reached, effectively ending the guerrilla war. On December 11, 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted to revert to British colonial rule. Britain lifted sanctions on December 12, and the United Nations followed suit on December 16, paving the way for Zimbabwe’s legal independence.

Mauritius, Tanzania, and Cameroon

1. Mauritius: Path to Independence:

• During the 1965 Lancaster Conference, it was evident that Britain sought to divest itself of the colony of Mauritius. This shift was influenced by Harold Macmillan’s Winds of Change Speech in 1959, which advocated for granting complete freedom to British colonies.
• Following the conference, in 1965, the Chagos Archipelago was separated from Mauritius to establish the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT).
• General elections were held on 7 August 1967, resulting in a majority for the Labour Party and its allies. Subsequently, Mauritius adopted a new constitution and proclaimed independence on 12 March 1968.

2. Tanzania: National Sovereignty Movement:

• In 1954, Julius Nyerere transformed the Tanganyika African Association into the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), focusing on achieving national sovereignty for Tanganyika.
• TANU rapidly became the leading political organization, with Nyerere becoming Minister of British-administered Tanganyika in 1960. Following Tanganyika's independence in 1961, Nyerere continued as prime minister.

3. French and British Cameroon: Path to Unification:

• The British administered their territory from neighboring Nigeria, leading to complaints from natives about being a neglected “colony of a colony.” The conversion of League of Nations mandates into United Nations Trusteeships in 1946 made the issue of independence pressing in French Cameroun.
• France suppressed the radical political party,Union des Populations du Cameroun (UPC), in 1955, leading to guerrilla warfare and the assassination of party leader Ruben Um Nyobé.
• In British Cameroons, the debate was between reunification with French Cameroun or joining Nigeria. French Cameroun gained independence from France on 1 January 1960. On 1 October 1961, the formerly British Southern Cameroons united with French Cameroun to form the Federal Republic of Cameroon.
• President Ahmadou Ahidjo consolidated power in the presidency, capitalizing on the ongoing conflict with the UPC, continuing even after the party's suppression in 1971.

Algeria

• Dissatisfaction among the Muslim population in Algeria, who were politically and economically marginalized under French colonial rule, gradually grew throughout the 1940s and 1950s. This discontent sparked demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. The tensions between the Muslim population and the French colonial authorities escalated significantly in 1954, marking the beginning of the Algerian War.
• During this conflict, a significant number of Harkis, estimated to be between 30,000 and 150,000, along with their dependents, faced violence at the hands of the Front de Libération Nationale (FLN) and lynch mobs throughout Algeria. The FLN employed various tactics, including terrorist attacks in both Algeria and France, while the French responded with severe reprisals. The war resulted in immense loss of life, with hundreds of thousands of Algerians dying and many more injured.
• The conflict came to an end in 1962, leading to Algeria's full independence. This was formalized through the March 1962 Evian agreements and the subsequent July 1962 self-determination referendum, which marked a significant victory for the Algerian people in their struggle for autonomy and self-governance.

Djibouti

• In 1958, a crucial referendum was held in Djibouti to determine its political future just before neighboring Somalia gained independence in 1960. The options were to join the Somali Republic or to continue its association with France. The results favored a continued relationship with France.
• In 1967, a second plebiscite was conducted, initially showing support for a looser relationship with France. However, by 1977, a third referendum saw an overwhelming 98.8% of the electorate supporting independence from France. This decisive vote officially marked Djibouti’s independence.

Portuguese Colonies

• The Portuguese regime faced growing demands for independence in its colonies, leading to armed conflicts. However, after a coup d’état in Lisbon in 1974, which overthrew the regime led by Marcelo Caetano, Portugal’s new revolutionary leaders initiated significant political changes at home. They also recognized the need to grant independence to the former colonies, marking a shift in Portugal’s colonial policy.

Uganda

• After World War II, Belgium continued to govern Rwanda as a UN Trust Territory, tasked with overseeing its path to independence. Tensions grew between the Tutsi minority, who wanted early independence, and the Hutu emancipation movement. This conflict escalated into the 1959 Rwandan Revolution, during which Hutu activists began attacking Tutsi individuals. In 1961, the pro-Hutu Belgian authorities conducted a referendum that led to the abolition of the monarchy.
• Subsequently, Rwanda was separated from Burundi and achieved independence in 1962, marking a significant shift in the region's political landscape.

Burundi

• In 1948, Belgium permitted the establishment of political parties in Burundi, which played a crucial role in the country's fight for independence. On January 20, 1959, Mwami Mwambutsa IV, the ruler of Burundi, requested the Belgian Minister of Colonies to separate Burundi from Rwanda and dissolve the combined territory of Ruanda-Urundi. 
• Subsequently, political parties emerged to advocate for Burundi's independence from European colonial rule and to emphasize the separation of Rwanda from Burundi. The Union for National Progress (UPRONA) was the first of these political parties.

Namibia

• South Africa took control of Namibia in 1915 after defeating German forces during World War I and administered it as a League of Nations mandate territory from 1919 onward. The territory was treated as the de facto "fifth province" of South Africa, with the white minority having representation in the whites-only Parliament of South Africa and electing their own local administration, the SWA Legislative Assembly. The South African government appointed the SWA administrator, who held significant powers.
• After the League of Nations was replaced by the United Nations in 1946, South Africa refused to relinquish its mandate in favor of a United Nations Trusteeship agreement, which would have subjected the territory to closer international oversight and established a clear schedule for independence.
• During the 1960s, as European powers granted independence to their colonies and trust territories in Africa, pressure mounted on South Africa to do the same in Namibia. In 1966, the International Court of Justice dismissed a complaint by Ethiopia and Liberia against South Africa's continued presence in the territory. However, the U.N. General Assembly later revoked South Africa's mandate, and in 1971, the International Court of Justice issued an advisory opinion declaring South Africa's administration of Namibia illegal.
• In response to the 1966 ruling by the International Court of Justice, the South-West Africa People's Organisation (SWAPO) established its military wing, the People's Liberation Army of Namibia, and began an armed struggle for independence. It was not until 1988 that South Africa agreed to end its occupation of Namibia in accordance with a United Nations peace plan for the region. This led to a diplomatic agreement between South Africa, Angola, and Cuba, with the USSR and the USA as observers. Under this agreement, South Africa agreed to withdraw and demobilize its forces in Namibia, while Cuba agreed to withdraw its troops from southern Angola, who were sent to support the MPLA in its conflict with UNITA.
• During South Africa's occupation of Namibia, white commercial farmers, most of whom were settlers from South Africa and constituted 0.2% of the national population, owned 74% of the arable land. Outside the central-southern region of Namibia, known as the "Police Zone," the country was divided into "homelands," similar to the South African bantustans.
• A combined United Nations civilian and peacekeeping force called UNTAG (United Nations Transition Assistance Group) was deployed from April 1989 to March 1990 to monitor the peace process, oversee elections, and supervise military withdrawals. After the return of SWAPO exiles, Namibia held its first one-person, one-vote elections for the constitutional assembly in November 1989.
• Namibia officially became independent on March 21, 1990, with Sam Nujoma sworn in as the first President of Namibia, an event witnessed by Nelson Mandela, who had been released from prison the previous month.

Guinea

• In 1958, the French Fourth Republic collapsed due to political instability and its inability to effectively manage its colonies, particularly in Indochina and Algeria. The establishment of the Fifth Republic was supported by the French populace, while President Charles de Gaulle made it clear on August 8, 1958, that France's colonies had a choice between greater autonomy within a new French Community and immediate independence in a referendum scheduled for September 28, 1958. Most colonies opted for the former, but Guinea, under the leadership of Ahmed Sékou Touré and his Democratic Party of Guinea (PDG), which had won 56 of 60 seats in the 1957 territorial elections, overwhelmingly voted for independence.
• The French withdrew rapidly, and on October 2, 1958, Guinea declared itself a sovereign and independent republic, with Sékou Touré as its president. Following the withdrawal of French forces, Guinea aligned itself with the Soviet Union and adopted socialist policies.

Morocco

• In 1943, the Istiqlal Party (Independence Party) was established with discreet support from the United States to advocate for Moroccan independence. This party later became a leading force in the nationalist movement. The French exile of Sultan Mohammed V to Madagascar in 1953, replacing him with the unpopular Mohammed Ben Aarafa, ignited active opposition to the French and Spanish protectorates. Notable violence erupted, particularly in Oujda, where Moroccans attacked French and other European residents. In 1955, France allowed Mohammed V to return, leading to negotiations for Moroccan independence.
• In March 1956, the French protectorate was abolished, and Morocco regained its independence from France, becoming the "Kingdom of Morocco." A month later, Spain ceded most of its protectorate in Northern Morocco to the new state, retaining only its two coastal enclaves, Ceuta and Melilla, on the Mediterranean coast. Sultan Mohammed V became king in 1957.

Wind of Change and Year of Africa

• The "Wind of Change" speech, delivered by British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on February 3, 1960, in Cape Town, South Africa, marked a significant moment in history. In his address, Macmillan acknowledged the growing national consciousness across the African continent and the challenges imperial powers would face in maintaining control over their colonies. This speech signified the British political elite's recognition that the British Empire was coming to an end and could not be revived.
• The year 1960 is often referred to as the "African Year" because 17 colonies gained their independence during this time, primarily from France. This period marked a significant wave of decolonization across the African continent.

Egypt

• After World War I, Saad Zaghlul and the Wafd Party emerged as leaders of the Egyptian nationalist movement, gaining significant support in the local Legislative Assembly. When the British exiled Zaghlul and his associates to Malta on March 8, 1919, the Egyptian populace revolted in what is considered the first modern revolution in the country. In response to the uprising, the British government issued a unilateral declaration of Egypt's independence on February 22, 1922.
• Following this declaration, a new government was formed, and a constitution based on a parliamentary system was implemented in 1923. Saad Zaghlul was elected Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was signed in 1936, but ongoing instability due to persistent British influence and increased political involvement by the monarchy led to the dissolution of parliament in a military coup known as the 1952 Revolution. This revolution, led by the Free Officers Movement, resulted in the abdication of King Farouk in favor of his son Fuad, and British military presence in Egypt continued until 1954.
• Following the 1952 Revolution, Egypt was placed under military rule. On June 18, 1953, the Egyptian Republic was officially declared, with General Muhammad Naguib becoming the first President of the Republic.

Sudan

• In 1899, Britain and Egypt came to an agreement where Sudan was governed by a governor-general appointed by Egypt with British approval. However, Sudan was effectively run as a British colony. The British aimed to reverse the unification of the Nile Valley under Egyptian rule initiated by Muhammad Ali Pasha and sought to prevent further integration of Egypt and Sudan.
• During World War II, Sudan was actively involved in the East African Campaign. The Sudan Defence Force (SDF), established in 1925, played a crucial role in responding to early Italian incursions into Sudan from Italian East Africa in 1940. In 1942, the SDF also contributed to the invasion of the Italian colony by British and Commonwealth forces.
• From 1924 until Sudan’s independence in 1956, the British administered Sudan as two separate territories: the north (Muslim) and the south (Christian). This continued British rule fueled a strong nationalist backlash in Egypt, with Egyptian nationalist leaders pushing for a unified independent state of Egypt and Sudan.
• With the formal end of Ottoman rule in 1914, Hussein Kamel was declared Sultan of Egypt and Sudan, followed by his brother and successor Fuad I. They advocated for a single Egyptian-Sudanese state, but the British resisted these movements towards independence.
• The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 marked the beginning of the path toward Sudanese independence. After abolishing the monarchy in 1953, Egypt’s leaders, Muhammad Naguib and later Gamal Abdel-Nasser, believed that the only way to end British control in Sudan was for Egypt to relinquish its claims over Sudan.
• The British, however, continued to support Sayyid Abdel Rahman, the Mahdi successor, whom they believed could withstand Egyptian pressures for Sudanese independence. Despite Rahman’s efforts, his regime faced political ineptitude, leading to a loss of support in northern and central Sudan. Sensing the growing political instability, Egypt and Britain allowed the Sudanese north and south to vote on independence, determining their desire for British withdrawal.
• A polling process was conducted, resulting in the formation of a democratic parliament. Ismail al-Azhari was elected as the first Prime Minister, leading the first modern Sudanese government.

Libya

• In 1934, Italy officially named its colony “Libya,” which comprised the provinces of Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, and Fezzan. Omar Mukhtar emerged as a national hero for leading the resistance against Italian colonization, despite being captured and executed on September 16, 1931. Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi, later known as King Idris I, led the Libyan resistance against Italian occupation between the two World Wars.
• In June 1940, Italy joined World War II, and Libya became a significant battleground during the North African Campaign, which ultimately ended in defeat for Italy and its German ally in 1943. From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under Allied occupation. The British military administered the provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaica, while the French administered Fezzan.
• In 1944, Idris returned from exile in Cairo but chose not to permanently reside in Cyrenaica until some aspects of foreign control were lifted in 1947. Under the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy renounced all claims to Libya. King Idris I led Libya to independence in 1951, becoming its first head of state. On December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya.