Colonisation and Decolonisation: Malaya | History Optional for UPSC (Notes) PDF Download

British Colonialism in Malaya

Introduction:

• Colonialism refers to the practice of a powerful country establishing control over a foreign territory, often by settling its own population there and exploiting the resources of the colonized land. In the case of British colonialism in Malaya, it involved the British Empire exerting political, economic, and cultural dominance over the Malay Peninsula and parts of Borneo.
• Malaya, located in Southeast Asia, was a region rich in natural resources and strategically important for trade. The British were drawn to Malaya for various reasons, including the desire for new resources, the expansion of trade, and the establishment of strategic bases to support their growing global trade networks.

Early Colonial Period (18th Century):

• The British presence in Malaya began in the late 1700s when the Sultan of Kedah leased Penang to the British East India Company. In 1786, under the leadership of Sir Francis Light, the British occupied Penang and founded Georgetown.
• In 1819, the British established a trading post in Singapore, and in 1824, they gained control of Malacca following the Anglo-Dutch Treaty.
• By 1826, the British had consolidated control over Penang, Malacca, Singapore, and Labuan, forming the Crown Colony of the Straits Settlements.

Expansion in Borneo (19th Century):

• The territories of Sabah and Sarawak in Borneo came under British control during the 19th century.
• In 1877-1878, the area now known as Sabah was acquired as North Borneo when the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu transferred their territorial rights to the British.
• Sarawak was ceded by the Sultan of Brunei to James Brooke in 1842, and the Brooke family ruled as the White Rajahs until 1946, when Sarawak became a Crown colony.

Formation of Federated and Unfederated Malay States (20th Century):

• By the late 1800s, the British East India Company had significant trading interests and partial control over various territories in Malaya.
• In the early 20th century, the states of Pahang, Selangor, Perak, and Negeri Sembilan, collectively known as the Federated Malay States, came under British control with British Residents advising the Malay rulers.
• The remaining five states, known as the Unfederated Malay States, while not directly ruled by the British, also accepted British advisers around the same time.

Reasons for British Interest in Malaya:

• The British were attracted to Southeast Asia, including Malaya, for its potential resources and trade opportunities. Raw materials such as pepper, resin, tobacco, oil palm, and rubber were significant factors in their decision to establish a presence in the region.
• The growth of trade with China, facilitated by British ships, further increased the company’s desire for bases in the region, prompting their interest in Malaya.

British Policies in Malaya:

• During British rule, Malaya saw an influx of Chinese and Indian laborers who came as miners, merchants, and planters.
• The British aimed to protect Malaya from economic and cultural changes, maintaining traditional class divisions.
• Policies promoted the production of cash crops such as tobacco, resin, oil palm, rubber, and spices, which became major exports.
• Malay farmers were forced to shift from subsistence farming to cash crops to meet colonial tax demands.

World War II and Japanese Occupation:

• During World War II, the Japanese army invaded and occupied Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore for over three years.
• This period saw heightened ethnic tensions and the rise of nationalism.
• The Japanese were supported by young Malayan radicals, including the Kesatuan Melayu Muda (KMM), and cooperated with Muslims, who were given special protections.
• The fall of Singapore and Japanese advances in the Malay Peninsula forced the British to reconsider their non-interventionist policies in favor of ethnic cooperation and a multiracial government.
• After Malaya was reconquered by Allied Forces, popular support for independence grew significantly.

Decolonization Following World War II

After World War II, imperial nations began the process of transferring power to the indigenous populations in their colonies. This process is known as “Decolonization.”

Economic Issues:

• Malaysia’s roads and infrastructure were severely damaged during the war and needed significant rebuilding.
• International commodity prices and exchange rates were unstable due to global reorganizations after World War II.
• Rubber plantations accounted for one-third of Malaysian jobs and the majority of foreign exchange earnings. However, with the invention of synthetic rubber, plantation owners started reducing wages and workforce, leading to unemployment and fostering communist insurgency and political unrest.

Malaya:

• Malaya was liberated from Japanese occupation in 1945, but the British faced challenges before they were ready to withdraw.
• Malaya was a complex territory consisting of nine sultan-ruled states, two British settlements (Malacca and Penang), and Singapore, a small island close to the mainland.
• The population was multiracial, primarily Malays and Chinese, with smaller communities of Indians and Europeans.
• The racial composition of Malaysia was Indigenous Malays, followed by Chinese and Indians.

British Administration and the Path to Independence:

• Post-war British plans aimed at uniting Malaya under the Malayan Union faced strong opposition from Malays who resisted weakening Malay rulers and granting citizenship to ethnic Chinese.
• The Malayan Union, established in 1946, was dissolved and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored Malay rulers’ autonomy under British protection.
• In preparation for independence, the British grouped the states and settlements into the Federation of Malaya in 1948, with Singapore remaining a separate colony.
• The central government held firm control, although each state had its own legislature for local affairs, and the sultans retained some power.

Communist Insurgency and British Response:

• The Chinese Communist guerrillas, led by Chin Peng of the Malayan Communist Party, who had previously resisted the Japanese, began instigating strikes and violence against the British, advocating for an independent communist state.
• In response, the British declared a state of emergency in 1948, successfully dealing with the communists over time, although the state of emergency lasted until 1960.
• The British resettled Chinese suspected of aiding the guerrillas into specially guarded villages. Independence was promised once the country was ready, ensuring Malay support for the British and limiting Chinese support for the communists.

Path to Independence:

• During the Cold War, countering communism was a significant aspect of the decolonization process.
• The move towards independence gained momentum when the Malay Party, led by Tunku Abdul Rahman, allied with major Chinese and Indian groups to form the Alliance Party. This coalition won 51 out of 52 seats in the 1955 elections, indicating stability.
• British authorities were convinced to grant full independence in 1957 through peaceful negotiations, with Malaya being admitted to the Commonwealth.

Formation of the Federation of Malaysia

• The Federation of Malaysia was established in 1963, with Malaya flourishing under Tunku’s leadership, becoming the most prosperous economy in Southeast Asia, primarily through rubber and tin exports.
• In 1961, Tunku proposed the inclusion of Singapore and three other British colonies—North Borneo (Sabah), Brunei, and Sarawak—into the Federation of Malaysia. Britain agreed, but the proposal faced delays due to opposition from Indonesia, the Philippines, and Brunei.
• Following a United Nations investigation that indicated strong support for the union, the Federation of Malaysia was officially proclaimed in September 1963.
• Brunei chose not to join and became an independent state within the Commonwealth in 1984. Singapore became part of Malaysia on September 16, 1963, marking the end of 144 years of British rule in Singapore, which began with Sir Stamford Raffles in 1819.

Challenges and Singapore's Exit:

• The union faced instability due to distrust and ideological differences between Singapore’s leaders and the Federal Government of Malaysia. Disputes over economics, finance, and politics led to heightened tensions, including conflicts with Indonesia.
• Singapore's exit from the federation in 1965 was a result of these ongoing issues. It declared itself a republic, while the rest of the Federation continued successfully.

Post-Independence Malaysia

• Despite the challenges, the economies and politics of the Malay Peninsula remained fragile.
• Post-independence, Malaysia established Islam and Malay as the national religion and national language, respectively. The government also implemented reservation quotas favoring indigenous Malays.
• However, the Chinese community, being ahead in education and economic opportunities, formed an opposition party. The second general election victory of this party led to racial riots and a state of emergency.
• Disenchanted Chinese ethnic groups were drawn into communist insurgency ranks. The ongoing Cold War and the Vietnam War further complicated matters, with foreign involvement exacerbating the situation.
• The insurgency continued to disrupt Malaysian peace efforts and nation-building until the late 1980s.
• Cold War ideological rivalry manifested in the Malayan Peninsula, with the rise of communist parties like the Malayan Communist Party and the Chinese Communist Organization. The fear of a communist takeover was a concern for liberal democracies and colonial powers, such as the British, who ensured the transfer of power to ideologically friendly regimes.