Weekly Current Affairs 8 November 2024 - UPSC PDF Download

GS3/Environment

Mangroves in Coastal Resilience

Recently, Cyclone Dana made landfall near Bhitarkanika National Park and Dhamra Port in Odisha, highlighting the critical role that mangrove forests play in mitigating cyclone impacts. The damage caused by the cyclone was less severe than expected, thanks to the extensive mangrove forest cover in Bhitarkanika. This area has historically withstood the effects of several cyclones, including the devastating Super Cyclone of October 1999.

What are Mangroves?

• About: Mangroves are unique salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that flourish in estuarine and intertidal zones where freshwater meets saltwater. Their adaptations, such as aerial roots and waxy leaves, enable them to thrive in saline conditions. They form a littoral forest ecosystem, growing in brackish waters along coastlines.
• Common Mangrove Species: Examples include Red Mangrove, Grey Mangrove, and Rhizophora.

Mangrove Cover in India:

• Current Status: As per the Indian State Forest Report 2021, India's mangrove cover stands at 4,992 sq. km, which constitutes about 0.15% of the total geographical area.
• Geographical Distribution: Significant mangrove ecosystems are found in states like Odisha (Bhitarkanika), Andhra Pradesh (Godavari-Krishna delta), Gujarat, Kerala, and the Andaman Islands. The Sundarbans, spanning India and Bangladesh, is recognized as the largest contiguous mangrove forest globally, while Bhitarkanika ranks second in India.

Role of Mangroves in Cyclone Mitigation:

• Coastal Defence: Mangroves serve as the primary barrier for coastal communities, stabilizing shorelines and preventing erosion.
• Storm Surge Protection: They act as natural buffers against storm surges caused by cyclones, significantly lowering surge heights and water flow velocities, which reduces flooding and coastal damage.
• Integration with Infrastructure: The effectiveness of mangroves can be increased when they are combined with man-made structures, such as embankments.

Initiatives for Protection and Conservation of Mangroves:

• MISHTI Initiative: Announced in the Union Budget 2023-24, this initiative focuses on mangrove plantation along coastlines and salt pan areas.
• Mangrove Alliance for Climate: This alliance includes countries like UAE, Indonesia, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, Japan, and Spain, aiming to raise global awareness on the importance of mangroves in combating climate change.
• Blue Carbon Initiative: Coordinated by Conservation International, IUCN, and IOC-UNESCO, this initiative promotes the conservation and restoration of coastal ecosystems to mitigate climate change.

What are the Challenges with Mangrove Conservation?

• Commercialisation of Coastal Areas: Activities like aquaculture, coastal development, and industrialization are rapidly replacing mangrove habitats.
• Temperature Related Issues: Sudden temperature fluctuations can stress mangrove species, while freezing temperatures can be lethal to some.
• Soil Related Issues: Mangroves grow in oxygen-poor soils, presenting challenges for their survival.
• Pollution and Contamination: Agricultural runoff, industrial waste, and improper disposal contaminate mangrove ecosystems.
• Lack of Integrated Management: Often, mangrove management occurs separately, neglecting their connections with other ecosystems like coral reefs and seagrass beds.

What can be Done to Preserve Mangroves?

• Utilize bio-restoration techniques, such as Assisted Natural Regeneration (ANR), to rehabilitate degraded mangrove areas and support biodiversity.
• Implement policies focused on conserving existing mangrove forests and restoring degraded areas, promoting sustainable management practices to bolster coastal ecosystems’ resilience.
• Engage local communities in conservation efforts to foster ownership and ensure the sustainability of mangrove ecosystems. Educational programs can enhance awareness of the benefits of mangroves.

Conclusion

• Enhancing mangrove conservation efforts is crucial for improving India's resilience to cyclones and protecting coastal communities. The integration of ecological and infrastructural strategies will be essential for achieving long-term sustainability and reducing disaster risks.

Drishti Mains Question:

• Examine the role of mangrove ecosystems in mitigating the impacts of cyclones. Discuss the significance of mangrove preservation in India’s coastal disaster management strategy.

GS3/Science and Technology

Biotechnology Experiments for India's Upcoming Space Station

Why in news?

Recently, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) have entered into a collaboration to design and conduct experiments that will be incorporated into the Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS), which is expected to be developed between 2028 and 2035.

Why have ISRO and DBT Collaborated for Space Experiments?

• The primary challenges faced during space missions include ensuring a steady supply of nutrients, food preservation, the effects of microgravity and radiation, and health issues such as cancer, cataracts, as well as bone and muscle degeneration.
• This Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) aims to tackle these challenges through the application of biotechnology.

Potential Experiments:

• Studying how weightlessness contributes to muscle loss in astronauts.
• Identifying specific algae species that could provide essential nutrients or enhance food preservation methods.
• Investigating the potential of certain algae for producing jet fuel.
• Evaluating the effects of radiation exposure on the health of individuals aboard space stations.

What is Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS)?

The Bharatiya Antariksh Station is India's planned indigenous space station designed for scientific research purposes.

It will be developed in three phases and will consist of five modules.

The first module, called BAS-1, is projected to be launched in 2028, with the station anticipated to be fully operational by 2035.

Key Details about the BAS:

• Orbit: The BAS will orbit the Earth at an altitude of approximately 400 to 450 kilometers.
• Weight: The space station will have an estimated weight of around 52 tonnes.
• Crew: Astronauts will have the capacity to remain in orbit for durations of 15 to 20 days.
• Modules: The BAS will include a crew command module, a habitat module, a propulsion module, and docking ports.
• Purpose: The station will be utilized for scientific research encompassing microgravity experiments, Earth observation, and the promotion of innovation.
• Collaboration: The BAS aims to foster international collaborations with various countries and space agencies.
• Program: The program will be led by ISRO, involving partnerships with industry, academic institutions, and other national entities.

GS3/Environment

Tiger Translocation for Genetic Diversity

Recently, the Odisha government undertook the translocation of a tigress named Jamuna from the Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve in Maharashtra to the Similipal Tiger Reserve (STR) in Odisha. This initiative aims to improve the genetic diversity of the tiger population in Similipal, which faces inbreeding issues due to a limited number of individuals.

• Key Facts About this Translocation:
• Previous Translocation Attempts:
• In 2018, a tigress named Sundari was relocated to the Satkosia Tiger Reserve.
• The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is responsible for approving translocation projects.
• Translocation of Black Tigers:
• The Odisha Tiger Estimation conducted in 2024 identified a total of 24 adult tigers in Similipal, including a significant number of pseudo-melanistic tigers.
• STR is uniquely recognized as the only habitat where these black tigers exist in the wild.
• Inbreeding Concerns:
• The presence of 13 out of 24 adult tigers being pseudo-melanistic raises alarms about inbreeding and the necessity for external genetic contributions.
• Future Initiatives:
• Plans are underway to create a melanistic tiger safari in Similipal, which would mark the first of its kind globally.

• Key Facts About Similipal Tiger Reserve:
• Location:
• The Similipal Tiger Reserve and National Park is located in Mayurbhanj district, Odisha.
• It was designated as part of Project Tiger in 1973 and included in UNESCO's Biosphere Reserve list in 2009.
• Geography:
• Similipal National Park features prominent natural landmarks such as Joranda and Barehipani waterfalls, Khairiburu and Meghashini peaks.
• Several rivers, including Burhabalanga, Palpala Bandan, Salandi, Kahairi, and Deo, flow through the reserve.
• The reserve is named after the Simul (Silk Cotton) tree.
• Biodiversity:
• The predominant forest type is tropical moist deciduous forests.
• Mammals found in the area include leopards, sambar deer, barking deer, gaurs, jungle cats, wild boars, four-horned antelopes, giant squirrels, and common langurs.
• Avian species include grey hornbills, Indian pied hornbills, and Malabar pied hornbills.
• Reptiles such as mugger crocodiles inhabit the Khairi and Deo Rivers.
• Indigenous Population:
• The reserve is home to indigenous tribes such as Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, Bhatudi, Gondas, Khadia, Mankadia, and Sahara.
• These tribes have cultural practices that include the worship of sacred groves known as Jharia.

• Key Facts About Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve:
• Overview:
• Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve is located in Maharashtra and is recognized as the oldest and largest national park in the state.
• The name Tadoba is derived from a local deity revered by the tribal people in the area.
• The reserve is named after the Andhari River, which flows through it.
• Flora and Fauna:
• Flora includes teak, semal, tendu, beheda, karaya gum, mahua madhuca, arjun, bamboo, and more.
• Fauna consists of tigers, Indian leopards, sloth bears, gaurs, nilgai, dhole, small Indian civets, sambars, spotted deer, barking deer, and chital.

GS3/Environment

COP-16 of Convention of Biological Diversity

Recently, the 16th edition of the Conference of Parties (COP 16) to the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) concluded in Cali, Colombia. During this event, India unveiled the updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), which aligns with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).

• Key Highlights of COP-16 to the CBD:
• The Cali Fund was established to guarantee fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from digital sequence information (DSI) on genetic resources. At least 50% of this fund will prioritize the self-identified needs of Indigenous Peoples and local communities, especially focusing on women and youth.
• DSI includes genomic sequence data vital for environmental and biological research.
• A new permanent subsidiary body was agreed upon to address Article 8j, which pertains to the preservation, maintenance, and sharing of Indigenous peoples' knowledge, innovations, and practices.
• A new Programme of Work on Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities was adopted, outlining specific tasks for their meaningful involvement in biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.
• Resource Mobilisation: A new "Strategy for Resource Mobilization" was developed to secure USD 200 billion annually by 2030 for biodiversity initiatives globally.
• The Kunming Biodiversity Fund (KBF) was launched with an initial contribution of USD 200 million from China, aiming to redirect USD 500 billion annually in harmful subsidies by 2030.
• National Biodiversity Targets: 119 out of 196 CBD Parties submitted national biodiversity targets to achieve the 23 KMGBF targets, with 44 countries having submitted their National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans.
• Synthetic Biology: COP-16 introduced a thematic action plan aimed at addressing inequities through capacity-building, technology transfer, and knowledge sharing among developing nations. This field involves engineering principles to create or modify organisms via methods like DNA sequencing and genome editing.
• Invasive Alien Species: Guidelines were proposed for managing invasive alien species through new databases, enhanced cross-border trade regulations, and better coordination with e-commerce platforms.
• Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSAs): A new process was agreed upon to identify critical and vulnerable ocean areas, which are essential for conservation efforts.
• Sustainable Wildlife Management and Plant Conservation: Decisions emphasized the importance of monitoring, capacity-building, and active participation of Indigenous Peoples, local communities, and women in sustainable wildlife management. Progress in plant protection must align with global biodiversity targets.
• Global Action Plan on Biodiversity and Health: A plan designed to address zoonotic diseases, prevent non-communicable diseases, and promote sustainable ecosystems was approved. It adopts a comprehensive "One Health" approach that interlinks the health of ecosystems, animals, and humans.
• Risk Assessment: New voluntary guidance on assessing risks posed by living modified organisms (LMOs) containing engineered genes was welcomed under the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.
• Recognition of People of African Descent: A decision was made to acknowledge the contributions of people of African descent in implementing the Convention.

• Key Points of India's Updated NBSAP:
• The updated NBSAP aligns with the KMGBF’s global objectives, focusing on reducing threats to biodiversity, promoting sustainable usage, enhancing ecosystem resilience, and facilitating species recovery.
• Comprehensive Structure: It comprises seven chapters covering contextual analysis, capacity-building, financing mechanisms, and biodiversity monitoring frameworks.
• Implementation: The Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change (MoEFCC) will oversee biodiversity conservation, supported by a multi-tier governance structure involving the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs), Union Territory Biodiversity Councils (UTBCs), and Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs).
• Targets:
• Aim to effectively conserve 30% of specified areas to enhance biodiversity.
• Target a 50% reduction in the introduction and establishment of invasive species.
• Promote sustainable consumption choices and halve food waste.
• Commit to reducing pollution, specifically aiming to cut nutrient loss and pesticide risk by half.
• Encourage benefit sharing from genetic resources, DSI, and associated traditional knowledge.
• Plan to allocate approximately Rs 81,664 crore for biodiversity and conservation from 2025 to 2030, with a noted need for international financing to achieve these goals.
• Engage local communities, particularly those dependent on forests, in conservation efforts.

• Conclusion:
• The 16th Conference of Parties (COP 16) to the Convention on Biological Diversity marked significant advancements in global biodiversity efforts, particularly through the establishment of the Cali Fund, the updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans, and a commitment to equitable resource sharing and sustainable practices.

Drishti Mains Question:

Evaluate the key features of India’s updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP) and its alignment with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).

GS3/Economy

RBI’s Repatriation of Gold

Why in News?

Recently, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has repatriated 102 tonnes of gold from the Bank of England (BoE) and the Bank for International Settlements (BIS). According to the RBI’s “Half Yearly Report on Management of Foreign Exchange Reserves”, gold held domestically stands at 510.46 metric tonnes in September 2024. India’s total gold reserves held by the RBI amount to 854.73 metric tonnes.

Why is India Repatriating Gold?

• Reducing Geopolitical Risks: Countries prefer to hold their gold reserves domestically to protect them from potential foreign sanctions or restrictions that could freeze or limit access to assets stored abroad. For instance, due to sanctions imposed by the US and its allies during the Ukraine war, Russia's access to USD 300 billion in gold and foreign exchange reserves has been frozen.
• Increasing Market Confidence: Gold is regarded as a "safe haven" asset, especially in emerging markets. Having it within national borders can enhance public confidence in the financial system.
• Economic Sovereignty: India’s gold reserves now exceed 101% of the country’s external debt, which boosts India’s ability to repay its debts.
• Supporting Domestic Financial Markets: With gold physically present in India, the RBI gains more flexibility to support gold-backed financial products in domestic markets. The Indian government has initiated programs like Sovereign Gold Bonds (SGBs) to decrease reliance on physical gold imports.
• Global Trend of Gold Repatriation: There is an observable trend among central banks to repatriate gold to their home countries, particularly over the last decade. For example, Venezuela repatriated gold from US and European vaults in 2011, and Austria followed suit in 2015.
• Cost Savings: The RBI incurs costs such as insurance, transportation fees, custodial fees, and vault charges to institutions like the Bank of England or the Federal Reserve for holding their gold. By bringing some of this gold back, the RBI can lower these ongoing expenses.
• Increasing Import Cover: This is a vital trade indicator that reflects the adequacy of reserves, which has improved alongside the growth in foreign-exchange reserves. Current foreign reserves are now enough to cover 11.8 months of imports.

Why the RBI Stores Gold Reserves Abroad?

• Mitigating Geopolitical Risks: By storing gold in multiple international locations, the RBI minimizes the risk of concentrating its reserves solely within India. Keeping reserves in major global financial hubs like London and New York ensures that assets remain accessible and secure in case of domestic or regional disturbances.
• International Liquidity: Gold stored in financial centers such as London, New York, and Zurich provides the RBI with immediate access to global markets. These cities are pivotal for gold trading, allowing for quick conversion of gold into cash if necessary.
• Economic Resilience: Accessing gold in international markets can serve as collateral for loans or other financial instruments, enhancing economic resilience and bolstering India’s capacity to meet international financial obligations.
• Trusted Custodians: The Bank of England is a recognized custodian known for safeguarding national assets and provides an established international framework for central banks to manage and store their gold reserves.

Conclusion

India's decision to repatriate gold reflects a shift towards enhanced economic resilience and risk mitigation. By holding more gold domestically, India reduces geopolitical and custodial risks, increases market confidence, and supports financial products, while also aligning with a global trend of central banks strengthening national control over gold reserves.

Drishti Mains Question:

How does India’s holding of gold reserves abroad contribute to its international liquidity and economic resilience?

GS3/Environment

WMO’s Greenhouse Gas Bulletin 2023

Why in News?

Recently, the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) released its annual Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Bulletin for the year 2023. The GHG Bulletin provides the latest analysis from the WMO Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) on atmospheric concentrations of GHGs.

• Key Findings of the GHG Bulletin:
• GHG Levels and Trends:
• Historical Warming: The warming effect from greenhouse gas emissions has increased by 51.5% since 1990, with carbon dioxide (CO₂) contributing approximately 81% of this impact.
• Record Highs in 2023: In 2023, greenhouse gas levels, including carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O), reached unprecedented levels globally. CO₂ increased by 2.3 parts per million (ppm) from 2022, reaching a total of 420 ppm.
• Highest Radiative Forcing: The year 2023 has been recorded as the warmest year on record, surpassing the previous peak set in 2016, with global temperatures being 1.48°C above the pre-industrial average of 1850-1900.
• Historical Comparison: Current CO₂ concentrations are similar to levels seen 3-5 million years ago, a time when global temperatures were 2-3°C higher and sea levels were 10-20 meters above current levels. This year marks the twelfth consecutive year with an annual rise in CO₂ exceeding 2 ppm.
• Causes of Increased CO₂ Levels:
• Human Activities: High CO₂ emissions from fossil fuel combustion and industrial processes are significant contributors to the rise in greenhouse gases.
• El Niño Impact: The El Niño phenomenon, which leads to warmer and drier conditions, particularly in South Asia, has exacerbated the situation by causing drier vegetation and forest fires, which in turn release more greenhouse gases and reduce the efficiency of land carbon sinks.
• Climate Concerns:
• Vicious Cycle Warning: Increased CO₂ levels and climate change may transform natural ecosystems into sources of greenhouse gases, as rising temperatures could enhance carbon release through wildfires and decrease CO₂ absorption by oceans.
• Methane Surge: Methane experienced the largest increase over a three-year period from 2020 to 2022, particularly from natural wetlands responding to warmer and wetter La Niña conditions.
• Reduced Carbon Sink: The report emphasizes that warming oceans and frequent wildfires could diminish the natural absorption of greenhouse gases.
• Policy Responses:
• Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): The UNFCCC 2023 assessment indicates that current NDCs can reduce global emissions by 2.6% from 2019 to 2030, which is significantly less than the 43% reduction needed to limit warming to 1.5°C as stipulated in the Paris Agreement.
• UNFCCC’s Call for Stronger NDCs: Countries are expected to submit updated NDCs by February 2024, with the UNFCCC emphasizing the importance of this moment to close the gap in global emission reduction efforts.
• What is Global Atmosphere Watch?
• About: The GAW is a collaborative program that involves 100 countries, providing essential scientific data on changes in atmospheric composition due to both natural and human influences.
• Purpose: Its aim is to enhance understanding of the interactions between the atmosphere, oceans, and biosphere, while supporting data collection for air pollution and climate change research.
• Core Monitoring Targets: The GAW program focuses on six key atmospheric variables: ozone, UV radiation, greenhouse gases, aerosols, selected reactive gases, and precipitation chemistry.
• Governance: GAW expert groups provide leadership and coordinate key activities within the program, supervised by the WMO Research Board and its Environmental Pollution and Atmospheric Chemistry Scientific Steering Committee (EPAC SSC).
• Publications: The program produces several important reports including the State of the Global Climate, Greenhouse Gas Bulletin, GAW Reports, and Ozone Bulletins.
• Conclusion: The WMO's 2023 Greenhouse Gas Bulletin highlights alarming increases in GHG levels and underscores the urgent necessity for stronger policy responses. As climate change intensifies, collaboration and enhanced national contributions are vital to mitigate environmental impacts and ensure global sustainability.

Drishti Mains Question: What are greenhouse gases? How have human activities influenced the concentration of greenhouse gases?

GS3/Environment

50th Foundation Day of Coal India Limited

Why in News?

Recently, Coal India Limited (CIL) celebrated its Foundation Day, marking its establishment as the apex holding company for nationalized coking coal mines in 1971 and non-coking coal mines in 1973. CIL operates under the Ministry of Coal and is headquartered in Kolkata.

What are the Key Facts About Coal India Limited?

• About: CIL is a government-owned coal mining company in India, responsible for coal production and management across the country. Founded in 1975, it is recognized as the world's largest coal producer.
• Organisational Structure: CIL is designated as a 'Maharatna' public sector enterprise and operates through eight subsidiaries, including Eastern Coalfields Limited (ECL) and Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL). Mahanadi Coalfields Limited (MCL) is the largest subsidiary in terms of coal production.
• Strategic Importance: CIL supplies over 78% of India's total coal production, with more than half of the country's installed power capacity being coal-based. Coal accounts for 40% of India's primary commercial energy consumption.
• Mining Capacity: CIL operates in 84 mining areas across eight Indian states, managing a total of 313 active mines.
• Recent Developments: CIL recently released a Strategy Report on Coal and Lignite Exploration and launched a Mine Closure Portal. Additionally, it announced plans for a 50 MW solar power facility at the Nigahi project in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh, which will provide a framework for coal and lignite exploration.

What are the Key Points Related to the Coal Sector in India?

• Pre-Independence: Coal mining in India dates back to 1774, initiated by M/s Sumner and Heatly in the Raniganj Coalfield along the Damodar River. The introduction of steam locomotives in 1853 significantly increased demand for coal.
• Post-Independence: The National Coal Development Corporation (NCDC), established in 1956, played a critical role in the systematic and scientific development of the coal sector in India.
• Nationalisation of Coal Mines: The nationalisation of coal mines took place in two phases: coking coal mines were nationalised first in 1971-72, followed by non-coking coal mines.
• Current Production: India produced 997.83 million tonnes (MT) of coal in 2023-24, with CIL contributing 773.81 MT, reflecting a growth of 10.04%. Other entities, such as TISCO, IISCO, and DVC, also produce smaller quantities of coal.
• Coal Import: In 2022-23, coal imports totaled 237.668 MT, an increase of 13.92% from 208.627 MT in 2021-22. The main sources of coal imports included Indonesia, Australia, Russia, South Africa, the US, Singapore, and Mozambique, primarily for sectors like steel, power, and cement.

What is the Economic Significance of the Coal Sector?

• Energy Backbone: Coal serves as a primary energy source, fueling thermal power plants and meeting over half of India's primary energy requirements. Projections indicate that coal demand could rise to 1,462 MT by 2030 and 1,755 MT by 2047, underscoring its critical role in electricity generation.
• Railway Freight: The coal sector is the largest contributor to railway freight in India, accounting for nearly 49% of total freight revenue.
• Revenue Generation: The coal sector contributes over Rs. 70,000 Crore annually to both central and state governments through various taxes, royalties, and GST. Funds from the District Mineral Fund and the National Mineral Exploration Trust help finance socio-economic and infrastructure initiatives, particularly in coal-rich regions.
• Employment Opportunities: The coal sector is a major employer, providing jobs to over 200,000 individuals in Coal India Ltd and its subsidiaries, in addition to thousands of contractual workers.
• Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): Coal sector PSUs invest in healthcare, education, water supply, and skill development in coal-producing areas, reflecting their commitment to community welfare.

What are Challenges in India's Coal Sector?

• Environmental Challenges:
  • Air Pollution: The combustion of coal releases harmful emissions, including Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, leading to issues such as acid rain, smog, and respiratory illnesses.
  • Poor Water Quality: Mining activities lead to high dissolved solids in local water bodies, while excessive groundwater extraction worsens water scarcity.
  • Land Degradation: Open-cast mining requires significant land, resulting in deforestation and loss of biodiversity.
• High Cost of Production: The average production cost is approximately Rs 1,500 per ton, which is higher compared to other coal-producing nations.
• Coal Quality: A significant portion of Indian coal is of inferior quality, impacting energy efficiency. CIL reports that 30-40% of domestic coal is classified as non-coking coal, which is less efficient for power generation.
• Investment in Renewables: India aims to enhance its renewable energy capacity to 500 GW by 2030, but the coal sector's dominance poses a challenge to achieving this target.
• Monopolistic Market Structure: CIL's dominance in the nationalized coal industry raises concerns about monopolistic practices, which can result in disadvantageous supply agreements for consumers.

How to Address Challenges in India's Coal Sector?

• Mitigating Environmental Challenges:
  • Implementing technologies such as scrubbers and Flue Gas Desulfurization can help reduce emissions of Sulphur dioxide, Nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.
  • Adopting water recycling and rainwater harvesting can improve the quality of water bodies affected by mining.
• Promoting Competition: Allowing greater private sector participation in coal mining and distribution can foster competition and enhance consumer choices.
• Investment Diversification: A clear roadmap for transitioning from coal to renewable energy sources is essential to ensure that investments in renewables are not hindered by the coal sector's dominance.
• Cost Management Initiatives: Exploring technological advancements, improved mining practices, and better resource management can help reduce coal production costs.

Drishti Mains Question

Analyse the challenges faced by the coal sector in India and suggest comprehensive measures to address these issues.

GS3/Economy

Recognising the Economic Value of Unpaid Work in India

Recently, a research paper has highlighted the economic significance of unpaid work, particularly emphasizing the contributions made by women and the necessity for its acknowledgment in productivity assessments.

What is Unpaid Work?

• Definition: Unpaid work encompasses activities performed by individuals, mainly women, without financial compensation.
• Women's Unpaid Labour: This includes care work, parenting, and household responsibilities, which often go unnoticed and unrecognized in economic discussions.

Types of Activities:

• Domestic Tasks: Includes chores like cleaning, cooking, and childcare.
• Care Work: Involves looking after family members, including the elderly and ill.
• Community Services: Participation in unpaid community activities.
• Subsistence Production: Engaging in agriculture or crafts for personal use rather than for sale.

Economic Contribution:

• Unpaid work plays a crucial role in the economy, often representing a significant portion of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), especially in developing nations.
• It provides essential services that enable others to engage in paid employment.

Gender Disparities and Limited Opportunities:

• Women disproportionately carry the load of unpaid work due to societal expectations, which limits their access to education, skill enhancement, and paid jobs, perpetuating cycles of inequality and restricting economic independence.

Importance of Recognising Unpaid Work:

• Acknowledging unpaid work is vital to addressing gender disparities and promoting equitable distribution of caregiving responsibilities.
• Incorporating unpaid work into national accounting aligns with sustainable development objectives, particularly in achieving gender equality as outlined in the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

What are the Key Highlights of the Research on Unpaid Work?

• Quantifying Unpaid Work: The research utilized data from the Consumer Pyramids Household Survey (CPHS) by the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), covering individuals aged 15 and older from September 2019 to March 2023.
• Findings reveal that women not in the workforce dedicate over 7 hours daily to unpaid domestic tasks, while employed women spend about 5.8 hours. In contrast, men contribute much less, averaging under 4 hours for unemployed men and 2.7 hours for those employed.
• Valuation Methods: The study applied two input-based valuation techniques:
• Opportunity Cost (GOC): Determines the value of unpaid labor based on the wages individuals forgo.
• Replacement Cost (RCM): Assigns monetary value by assuming these tasks could be performed by hired workers, using market wages for similar roles.
• Results indicated that the estimated value of unpaid household work was Rs 49.5 lakh crore using the GOC method and Rs 65.1 lakh crore with the RCM method for 2019-20, corresponding to 24.6% and 32.4% of nominal GDP, respectively.
• Policy Recommendations: The authors recommend policies that recognize and value unpaid work to foster gender equity in the workforce.
• Despite the System of National Accounts including household production in GDP calculations since 1993, unpaid care work remains excluded.
• A 2023 State Bank of India report estimates unpaid work contributes around Rs 22.7 lakh crore (approximately 7.5% of GDP) to the Indian economy.
• Enhancing women's labor force participation could potentially boost India's GDP by 27%. Future research is necessary to refine methodologies for valuing unpaid work and to promote an equitable distribution of caregiving roles.

What are the Key Statistics on Unpaid Work in India?

• Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) 2023-24: According to the PLFS Report 2023-24, 36.7% of females and 19.4% of the workforce engage in unpaid work within household enterprises. Similar trends were observed in 2022-23 data, with 37.5% of females and 18.3% of the total workforce participating in unpaid work.
• Time Use Survey 2019 (NSO): A staggering 81% of females aged 6 and above spend over five hours daily on unpaid domestic work, rising to 85.1% for those aged 15-29 and 92% for the 15-59 age group. In contrast, only 24.5% of men (aged 6+) spend over an hour daily on unpaid domestic tasks.
• Unpaid Caregiving Services: 26.2% of women aged 6+ spend over two hours daily on caregiving, compared to 12.4% of men. Among the 15-29 age group, 38.4% of women engage in unpaid caregiving versus just 10.2% of men.

Why are Women More Involved in Unpaid Work?

• Cultural Norms and Gender Roles: Societal views often perceive caregiving and household tasks as inherent responsibilities of women, leading to their unpaid and unrecognized status.
• A significant 53% of women in India are outside the labor force due to care duties, while only 1.1% of men cite similar reasons.
• Economic Constraints: In many households, women's unpaid work is seen as a cost-saving strategy, especially in low-income families where hiring assistance is financially unfeasible.
• The absence of affordable care options often forces women into unpaid caregiving roles due to inadequate public investment in care infrastructure.
• Limited Employment Opportunities: Women, particularly those with lower education levels or residing in rural regions, face restricted job prospects, making unpaid work at home their primary contribution to family support.
• Policy Gaps: A lack of family-friendly policies, such as parental leave for both sexes and flexible working conditions, results in women shouldering the primary caregiving responsibilities.
• Limited Recognition of Unpaid Work: Unpaid domestic and caregiving work is often undervalued and overlooked in economic metrics, perpetuating the misconception that it is not "real work" deserving of formal acknowledgment or compensation.

What Policies are Needed to Address Inequity in Unpaid Work?

• Investment in Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE): Increase government funding to create accessible and affordable childcare options, enabling more women to participate in the workforce.
• Offer financial support for childcare and develop community centers that provide both childcare and education, particularly in rural and underserved areas, to alleviate the unpaid care burden on women.
• Countries like Iran, Egypt, Jordan, and Mali have high percentages of women outside the labor force due to caregiving, whereas nations like Belarus, Bulgaria, and Sweden have less than 10% of women in similar situations due to substantial ECCE investments.
• Flexible Work Policies: Encourage organizations to adopt flexible work structures that allow parents and caregivers to balance their professional and domestic responsibilities.
• Extend paid family leave policies to cover caregiving for older adults and family members with special needs.
• Legal Frameworks and Labour Rights: Implement laws that formally recognize unpaid care work as a valid economic contribution.
• Strengthen laws promoting gender equality in the workplace, including anti-discrimination and equal pay regulations.
• Promoting Shared Responsibility: Initiate national campaigns to challenge traditional gender roles and foster shared domestic responsibilities between men and women.

Conclusion

• Recognizing and valuing unpaid work, especially that performed by women, is essential for achieving gender equality and enhancing economic productivity.
• Incorporating unpaid work into economic metrics and implementing supportive policies can help address disparities and empower women's participation in the workforce, leading to a more just society and sustainable economic growth.

Drishti Mains Question:

• Discuss how entrenched cultural norms influence women's participation in unpaid work and their access to the labour market.

GS2/Governance

Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme

The Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS) continues to be a contentious issue in India. Supporters assert that it empowers MPs to meet the needs of their constituents, while detractors claim it undermines the constitutional principle of separation of powers. Recent discussions have emerged regarding incomplete projects and the need for increased funding, intensifying the debate over MPLADS's oversight and accountability.

What is MPLADS?

• Overview: MPLADS is a Central Sector Scheme initiated in 1993. It allows Members of Parliament (MPs) to suggest development projects in their constituencies, focusing on creating lasting community assets that address local needs.
• Implementation: The scheme is managed by a state-level nodal department, with district authorities responsible for project approval, fund allocation, and implementation.
• Funding Allocation: Since 2011-12, each MP receives Rs 5 crore annually, disbursed by the Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation (MoSPI) in two installments of Rs 2.5 crore each.
• Nature of Funds: The funds are non-lapsable, meaning they can be carried over if not used in a given year. Additionally, MPs are required to allocate at least 15% and 7.5% of their funds for projects benefiting Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), respectively.
• Special Provisions: MPs can allocate up to Rs 25 lakh annually for projects outside their constituencies aimed at promoting national unity. In cases of severe natural disasters, they can allocate up to Rs 1 crore for projects anywhere in India.
• Eligible Projects: MPLADS funds can be combined with the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS) for the creation of durable assets and can support the Khelo India program for sports infrastructure. Infrastructure projects are allowed on lands owned by registered societies or trusts engaged in social welfare for at least three years, but not on lands where the MP or their family are office-bearers.

What are the Main Arguments For and Against MPLADS?

• Criticisms:
  • Violation of Constitutional Principles: Critics argue that MPLADS violates the principles of governance by allowing legislators to assume executive roles. While MPs claim to merely recommend projects, there are concerns that district authorities seldom reject these recommendations, raising accountability issues.
  • Lack of Accountability: There are significant concerns regarding insufficient monitoring and evaluation mechanisms, which may lead to the misuse of public funds. Allegations suggest that MPs may use MPLADS funds to benefit political allies, contractors, or family members.
  • Political Misuse: Investigations into MPLADS fund utilization are often seen as politically motivated, particularly around election times.
• Issues in MPLADS:
  • The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) has identified numerous flaws in the execution of MPLADS, including low fund utilization rates, which range from 49% to 90%.
  • Funds are frequently used to enhance existing assets rather than for new project creation.
  • Reports have noted excess payments and substandard work due to inferior materials, delays in issuing work orders, and poor documentation, all of which raise transparency concerns.
• Supportive Views:
  • Local Development Focus: Proponents, mainly elected officials, argue that MPLADS is vital for local development, allowing MPs to respond effectively to community needs.
  • Flexibility in Project Selection: Supporters claim that MPLADS facilitates quicker project implementation aligned with local priorities.
  • Increased Allocation Demand: Many MPs are advocating for higher MPLADS funding, stating that the current allocation is insufficient compared to what state legislators receive, which could help achieve fairer development across larger constituencies.

How Effective is the Monitoring of MPLADS?

• Third-Party Evaluations: The government has engaged third-party organizations like NABCONS and AFC Limited to assess MPLADS. While some evaluations reported positive outcomes, such as the creation of quality assets, they also uncovered issues like ineligible project approvals and asset encroachments.
• Key Problems in Monitoring MPLADS:
  • Delays in evaluations reduce opportunities for timely corrective measures.
  • Lack of stringent checks and follow-up on irregularities leads to the misuse of funds.
  • Limited public access to fund utilization data complicates transparency efforts.
  • While each MP's office possesses detailed fund utilization data, this information is not consistently updated on the designated portal.

Does MPLADS Require Reform or Abolition?

• Arguments for Reform:
  • Proposals for reform include providing MPLADS with statutory backing and establishing an independent monitoring body to enhance governance and accountability.
  • Implementing open tendering for contractor selection with oversight from CAG representatives could ensure adherence to regulations.
  • Reforms could enable better integration with national schemes like MGNREGS to maximize fund impact.
  • While the current scheme allows for diverse project funding, reforms could specifically target welfare initiatives for marginalized communities to boost local development.
• Arguments for Abolition:
  • Abolishing MPLADS might redirect funds directly to local governments, which are better equipped to assess and meet community needs.
  • Many argue that existing government initiatives already fulfill local development requirements, suggesting that eliminating MPLADS could enhance resource utilization and prevent overlapping efforts.
  • Weak regulations have led to misuse and uneven fund distribution, increasing the risk of corruption.

Conclusion

• Finding a balance between the development goals of MPLADS and robust accountability mechanisms is crucial for its future.
• The ongoing debate centers around whether reforms to improve transparency will suffice or if more drastic measures, such as abolishing the scheme, are necessary in the context of India's democratic governance.

Drishti Mains Question:

• What are the issues associated with the MPLADS scheme? How does it challenge the separation of powers?

GS3/Economy

Paradox of Stagnant Rural Wages

Recently, the Indian economy and the farm sector have experienced average annual growth rates of 4.6% and 4.2% respectively from 2019-20 to 2023-24. However, this economic growth has not translated into increased rural wages, highlighting a paradox where both agricultural and non-agricultural wages have either stagnated or declined despite the growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP).

What is the Current State of Rural Wages?

• Nominal Wages: From April 2019 to August 2024, nominal wages grew at an average annual rate of 5.2%. For agricultural wages specifically, the nominal growth was slightly higher at 5.8%, indicating stronger demand for labor in this sector.
• Real Wages: The real wage growth, which accounts for inflation, was negative at -0.4% for rural workers overall, while agricultural wages posted a modest increase of 0.2%. This shows that even as nominal wages rose, inflation outpaced these gains, thereby diminishing the purchasing power of rural workers.
• Current Fiscal Trends: In the first five months of the 2023-24 fiscal year (April-August), nominal growth rates for agricultural wages were at 5.7%, while real growth was only 0.7%.

What are the Reasons for Stagnation in Rural Wages?

• Higher Female LFPR: The Female Labour Force Participation Rate has significantly increased from 26.4% in 2018-19 to 47.6% in 2023-24. This rise suggests that more individuals are willing to work, often at lower wages, which puts downward pressure on overall wage levels.
• Low Agricultural Productivity: Marginal productivity in agriculture, especially in rural areas, is generally low. An influx of labor does not lead to proportional increases in productivity, further contributing to wage stagnation.
• Capital-Intensive Technology: Advancements in technology are reducing the need for manual labor in various industries. For instance, the use of threshing machines in agriculture has replaced manual labor, benefitting capital owners but hindering wage growth and job opportunities.
• Decline in Non-Agricultural Labour Demand: Industries that typically employ rural labor, such as manufacturing and services, have not expanded adequately alongside GDP growth, leading to fewer job opportunities.
• Limited Non-Farm Opportunities: Small-scale and cottage industries in rural areas are often underdeveloped, lacking the necessary support and financing to create non-farm job opportunities.
• Weaker Wage Guarantee Programs: Issues like delayed payments and corruption in the implementation of programs like MGNREGA hinder the effectiveness of wage support initiatives.
• Inflation: Rising prices for essential commodities and services erode real wages, as nominal wages remain stagnant or grow slowly.
• Climate Change: Frequent climate events such as droughts and floods adversely affect agricultural incomes, limiting the ability of landowners to offer higher wages and creating instability in the rural labor market.

What are the Implications of Stagnant Rural Wages?

• Poor Domestic Demand: With a large portion of India's population living in rural areas, their limited purchasing power constricts demand for goods, particularly from small and medium enterprises, thereby affecting overall economic growth.
• Financial Vulnerability and Debt: High inflation coupled with stagnant wages forces rural households into debt, creating a cycle of financial instability and increasing reliance on informal lenders.
• Underemployment: The decline in non-farm job opportunities compels many rural workers to revert to agriculture, even when it yields low returns.
• Gender Wage Disparity: Stagnant wages affect all rural workers, but women, who typically earn less than men for the same jobs, are disproportionately impacted.
• Forced Migration: The lack of better-paying jobs in rural areas drives workers to migrate to cities, leading to urban overcrowding and straining infrastructure and services.
• Limited Human Capital: Low wages restrict access to quality healthcare, education, and nutrition, especially for children, with long-term effects on rural development.

How to Address Rural Wage Stagnation Problem?

• Strengthen Income Transfer Schemes: Expanding and increasing payments in schemes such as PM-KISAN and free-grain distribution can alleviate financial pressures on low-income families.
• Implement Periodic Wage Adjustments: Regularly revising rural minimum wages based on inflation can help ensure that wage growth aligns with living costs. Data from surveys and studies by the Labour Bureau can guide policymakers in addressing rural wage challenges effectively.
• Address Gender Pay Gap: Initiatives targeting women and low-income families, such as Maharashtra's Ladki Bahin Yojana, which provides monthly support for qualifying families, can help those affected by wage stagnation.
• Rural Non-Farm Employment: Policies should encourage labor-intensive sectors like textiles, food processing, and tourism, while programs can offer stable employment during economic downturns or seasonal unemployment.
• Agricultural Modernization: Improving agricultural productivity through access to technology, irrigation, and high-quality seeds can enhance wages by increasing output and income per worker.

Conclusion

The paradox of stagnant rural wages persists despite strong economic and agricultural growth, attributed to factors such as increased labor supply, low agricultural productivity, and limited non-farm job opportunities. Addressing this issue requires a combination of targeted income support, wage adjustments, skill development, and modernization of agriculture to promote sustainable wage growth and rural development.

Drishti Mains Question:

Discuss the reasons behind the stagnation of rural wages in India despite steady economic growth. What measures can be taken to address this issue?

GS2/Polity

SC Upholds UP Madarsa Act 2004

Why in News?

Recently, the Supreme Court partially upheld the constitutional validity of the Uttar Pradesh Madrasa Education Board Act, 2004, overturning the Allahabad High Court ruling (March 2024) which declared it unconstitutional. However, the SC declared the provisions pertaining to higher education (Kamil and Fazil) as conflicting with the University Grants Commission Act (UGC Act) 1956, which is governed by Entry 66 of List 1.

Why has the Supreme Court Upheld the UP Madrasa Education Board Act, 2004?

• Constitutional Validity: The Madrasa Act, 2004 effectively regulates educational standards ensuring that students achieve competency for active societal participation.
• Legislative Competence: The Supreme Court confirmed that the Madrasa Act falls within the legislative powers of the State Legislature, specifically under Entry 25 of List 3 (Concurrent List) of the Constitution.
• Religious Education vs Religious Instruction: The Court differentiated between religious education, which promotes communal harmony, and religious instruction, which is prohibited under Article 28 in state-recognized institutions.
• Immunity to Basic Structure: The Court stated that the constitutional validity of a statute cannot be challenged unless it violates specific provisions of the Constitution related to secularism.
• State Regulation: The Court noted that the state can establish rules under the Act to ensure that madrasas provide secular education alongside religious teachings.
• Minority Rights and Quality Education: The Court emphasized the need for directions to ensure that madrasa students receive a quality education comparable to that provided in state institutions.
• Minority Rights: By upholding the Act, the Court reinforced the rights of religious minorities to establish educational institutions under Article 30 of the Indian Constitution.
• Focus on Inclusivity: The directive to ensure access to quality education for madrasa students supports their integration within the broader educational framework of the state.

What is the UP Madrasa Education Board Act, 2004?

• About: This Act serves as a legislative framework to regulate and formalize madrasa education in Uttar Pradesh, ensuring compliance with defined educational standards and norms.
• Madarsa Education: The Act aims to integrate madrasa education with the secular curriculum prescribed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), combining formal education with Islamic teachings.
• Board of Madarsa Education: The Act established the Uttar Pradesh Board of Madarsa Education, responsible for overseeing and regulating madrasa education in the state.
• Examination: It includes provisions for conducting examinations for madrasa students, with courses ranging from the 'Maulvi' level (equivalent to Class 10) to the 'Fazil' level.

Why did Allahabad HC Declare UP Madrasa Education Board Act, 2004 Unconstitutional?

• Secularism: The Allahabad HC found that the Madarsa Act, 2004 infringed upon secularism by mandating Islamic education at all levels while relegating modern subjects to an optional status.
• Violation of Fundamental Rights: Right to Education (Article 21A): The Act was deemed in violation of the right to free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14, as it did not meet the constitutional obligations for education.
• Article 14 Violation: The Act was found to discriminate between madrasa students and those in mainstream schools.
• Article 15 Violation: It established a separate and unequal education system for madrasa students.
• Conflict with Central Law: The court identified conflicts with the University Grants Commission Act, 1956, which grants authority for degree conferral only to universities recognized under its provisions.

What are Implications of the SC Ruling on UP Madrasa Education Board Act, 2004?

• Regulation of Education Standards: This ruling reinforces the state’s responsibility in setting educational standards to maintain quality across all institutions.
• Protection of Minority Rights: It affirms the rights of religious minorities to establish educational institutions as long as they adhere to prescribed educational standards.
• Inclusivity: The decision supports the integration of madrasas into the broader educational framework, ensuring that all children receive quality education.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court's decision to uphold the Uttar Pradesh Madrasa Education Board Act emphasizes the balance between religious education and secular standards. While affirming minority rights, it reinforces the state’s authority to regulate education. This ruling may set a precedent for the regulation of religious education nationwide, ensuring inclusivity and quality.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Examine the implications of the Supreme Court's ruling on the Uttar Pradesh Madrasa Education Board Act, 2004, particularly in relation to minority rights and the state's responsibility to provide secular education.

GS3/Environment

First Advance Estimates for Kharif Crop Production

The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare has recently released the Kharif crop production estimates for the year 2024-25, indicating a record output in foodgrains and oilseeds. This report highlights the government's increasing reliance on technology and stakeholder input in agricultural planning, showcasing a notable rise in production, particularly in staple crops like rice and maize.

• Key Highlights of the First Advance Estimates for Kharif Crop Production
• Digital Crop Survey (DCS):
  • The DCS was implemented for the first time under the Digital Agriculture Mission (DAM) to determine crop areas, replacing the traditional manual Girdawari method in four states: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Odisha.
• Record Foodgrain Production:
  • Total Kharif food grain production for 2024-25 is estimated at 1647.05 Lakh Metric Tonnes (LMT), an increase of 89.37 LMT compared to 2023-24 and 124.59 LMT above the average Kharif food grain production, driven by high yields of rice, jowar, and maize.
• Crop-Wise Estimates:
• Implications:
  • Food Security: The significant production across vital crops enhances India’s food security, ensuring a reliable supply for domestic needs and potential exports.
  • Economic Impact: Increased yields can positively impact the economy by boosting rural incomes, stabilizing prices, and enhancing the agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) contributions.
  • Policy Planning: The data-driven estimates aid policymakers in crafting effective support programs and strategies for supply chain management.

• What is the Digital Agriculture Mission?
  • The DAM aims to revolutionize the agricultural sector through digital innovation and technology-driven solutions, with a budget allocation of Rs. 2,817 crore. The mission focuses on modernizing agriculture by integrating data, digital tools, and technology to enhance farming efficiency, transparency, and accessibility.
• Components of the DAM:
  • AgriStack: A comprehensive Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) designed for farmers, which includes:
    • Farmers' Registry: Contains unique IDs for farmers, similar to Aadhaar.
    • Geo-referenced Village Maps: Provides accurate mapping of agricultural lands.
    • Crop Sown Registry: A database that tracks which crops are planted and their locations.
  • The AgriStack initiative aims to streamline government services, reduce bureaucratic hurdles, and ease the process for farmers to access benefits. Pilot projects have been implemented in six states to test the creation of Farmer IDs and the DCS.
• Key Targets Include:
  • Establishing digital identities for 11 crore farmers over three years, with targets of 6 crore in FY 2024-25, 3 crore in FY 2025-26, and 2 crore in FY 2026-27.
  • Launching the DCS nationwide within two years, with coverage of 400 districts in FY 2024-25 and all districts by FY 2025-26.
  • Krishi Decision Support System (DSS): A geospatial system that utilizes remote sensing data on soil, weather, water, and crops to provide real-time, data-informed insights for farmers.
  • Soil Profile Mapping: High-resolution soil maps will be developed for agricultural lands to enhance understanding of soil health and promote sustainable farming practices.
  • Digital General Crop Estimation Survey (DGCES): This initiative employs technology to improve the accuracy of crop yield estimates, aiding productivity and policy formulation.
• Benefits:
  • Enhanced Transparency: Accurate data facilitates more efficient and transparent processing for crop insurance, loans, and government schemes.
  • Disaster Response: Improved crop maps will enable quicker responses during natural disasters, thereby assisting in disaster relief and insurance claims.
  • Targeted Support: With a digital framework, farmers can receive real-time guidance on pest management, irrigation, and other advisory services tailored to their specific needs.
  • Employment Opportunities: The mission is anticipated to create both direct and indirect employment in agriculture, supporting around 2,50,000 trained local youth.

• Drishti Mains Question:
  • Q. Analyze the economic implications of food grain production in India, particularly regarding food security and rural income.

GS3/Environment

World Cities Report 2024

Why in News?

Recently, the UN-Habitat has released the World Cities Report 2024: Cities and Climate Action. The report highlighted that the cities are among the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, yet they face disproportionately severe impacts of climate change.

What are the Key Findings of the World Cities Report 2024?

• Temperature Increases: By 2040, nearly two billion people in urban areas will encounter a 0.5°C rise in temperature. 14% of cities are projected to shift to drier climates, while at least 900 cities may transition to more humid conditions, particularly in tropical regions.
• Sea-Level Rise: By 2040, over 2,000 cities located in low coastal areas, many less than 5 meters above sea level, will put more than 1.4 billion people at higher risk due to sea-level rise and storm surges.
• Disproportionate Impact: Urban areas are significantly affected by climate change while also being major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, rendering them more susceptible to climate shocks such as floods and cyclones.
• Investment Gap: To establish climate-resilient systems, cities require an estimated USD 4.5 to USD 5.4 trillion annually. However, current funding is only about USD 831 billion, indicating a substantial shortfall.
• Riverine Flooding: The exposure of cities to riverine flooding has surged, increasing 3.5 times faster than in rural areas since 1975. By 2030, 517 million individuals in urban areas will be exposed to riverine flooding, representing 14% of the global urban population.
• Decline of Green Spaces: The proportion of urban green spaces has decreased significantly from 19.5% in 1990 to 13.9% in 2020, contributing to various environmental and social challenges within cities.
• Increased Vulnerability: Informal settlements, often situated in flood-prone and low-lying areas, are major contributors to vulnerability. The lack of protective infrastructure and legal recognition makes these communities more exposed to climate impacts and unable to invest in necessary upgrades due to fears of eviction.
• Green Gentrification: Some climate interventions, such as park creation, have led to green gentrification, which displaces underprivileged communities. This phenomenon occurs when a low-income neighborhood undergoes changes due to an influx of wealthier residents, resulting in rising property values and rents.

How Urban Areas Contribute to Global Warming?

• Energy Consumption: Urban areas are responsible for 71% to 76% of CO2 emissions from global final energy use due to the concentration of energy-intensive industries, transportation, and high-density residential and commercial buildings. Urban lifestyles typically demand high energy consumption for electricity, heating, and cooling in buildings.
• Industrial Activities: Factories and power plants that utilize fossil fuels release various greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O).
• Land Use Changes: The conversion of land for housing, infrastructure, and industrial purposes diminishes the Earth's capacity to absorb and store carbon. The area of urban land is expected to more than triple from 2015 to 2050, leading to deforestation and destruction of habitats.
• Waste Generation and Landfills: Decomposition of organic waste in landfills emits methane, a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential significantly higher than that of CO2.
• Urban Heat Island Effect: Cities, especially those with extensive concrete and asphalt surfaces, absorb and retain more heat than rural areas, resulting in the urban heat island effect.

How Cities are Affected by Global Warming?

• Heatwaves: Global warming is leading to increased global temperatures and more frequent heatwaves. For instance, heatwaves are becoming more severe in India.
• Urban Heat Islands (UHIs): UHIs are urban areas that are significantly warmer than surrounding regions due to heat-absorbing materials and energy consumption.
• Coastal Flooding: Rising temperatures are causing glaciers and ice sheets to melt, contributing to sea-level rise which inundates coastal areas, displaces communities, and disrupts ecosystems.
• Wildfire Season: The season for wildfires has been prolonged and intensified due to rising temperatures and prolonged droughts, increasing fire risks.

Way Forward

• Resilient Infrastructure: Infrastructure is crucial for reducing emissions, as it is responsible for 79% of total emissions and is pivotal in achieving 72% of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). Infrastructure should be resilient to climate impacts and address social and environmental factors that heighten community vulnerability.
• Green Energy: Transitioning to electrified public transport and promoting electric vehicles can significantly lower the carbon footprint associated with both personal and public transportation.
• Diverse Financing Mix: To close the financing gap, well-structured loans and credit facilities can aid cities in investing in long-term climate solutions. Affordable financing models, climate-friendly loans, and green bonds are essential for securing capital for climate initiatives.
• Urban Carbon Sinks: Cities can offset emissions by investing in nature-based solutions like green roofs, urban forests, and parks that absorb carbon dioxide. Compact urban planning can also mitigate urban sprawl, reducing the need for extensive travel and related emissions.
• Circular Waste Management: Implementing effective waste management practices such as recycling and composting can prevent methane emissions from landfills.
• Whole-of-Society Approach: Coordinated efforts across different government levels and sectors are vital for ensuring consistent, inclusive, and effective climate action.
• Strengthening Local Capacities: Local governments are best suited to create tailored solutions for their communities, understanding their specific challenges and needs. Encouraging lifestyle changes, such as walking, biking, and carpooling instead of relying on private vehicles, can also help reduce demand.

Conclusion

The report underscores the urgent need for cities to confront the impacts of climate change, emphasizing both their vulnerability and their role in contributing to global warming. Effective solutions necessitate resilient infrastructure, green energy, and circular waste management, all supported by diverse financing methods and local actions to create climate-resilient and inclusive urban environments.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Discuss how urban areas contribute to global warming and the measures required to mitigate their impact.

GS3/Environment

Urbanisation and Industrialisation Depleting Groundwater

A recent study titled Detection and Socio-Economic Attribution of Groundwater Depletion in India highlighted the significant impact of urbanisation and industrialisation on groundwater depletion in five Indian states.

What are the Key Findings of the Study?

• Affected States:
  • Punjab and Haryana (Hotspot I): The most severely impacted, losing 64.6 billion cubic metres of groundwater over two decades.
  • Uttar Pradesh (Hotspot II): A decline in irrigation demand by 8%, while domestic and industrial usage surged by 38%, resulting in a 4% drop in groundwater levels.
  • West Bengal (Hotspot III): Minimal growth in irrigation at 0.09%, but a 24% increase in other uses led to a 3% reduction in groundwater.
  • Chhattisgarh (Hotspot IV): Rising usage across sectors caused groundwater levels to decline significantly.
  • Kerala (Hotspot V): Experienced a 17% decrease in groundwater despite ample rainfall, attributed to a 36% drop in irrigation and a 34% rise in other usages.
• Primary Cause:
  • Rapid Urbanisation: Urbanisation increased by 10% from 2001 to 2011, significantly affecting areas like Faridabad and Gurgaon, where groundwater levels sharply declined post-2012.
  • Rising Demand: Enhanced domestic and industrial water consumption alongside a slight decrease in rainfall during the study period contributed to groundwater depletion.

What are the Major Causes of Groundwater Depletion?

• Over-Reliance on Groundwater: Approximately 80% of India’s water usage is for irrigation, predominantly sourced from groundwater. Increasing food demand escalates groundwater extraction, leading to significant depletion.
• Poor Water Management: Inefficient water usage, leaks in infrastructure, and insufficient systems for rainwater capture aggravate groundwater depletion.
• Decline in Traditional Water Conservation Methods: The reduction of practices such as rainwater harvesting and the use of step wells and check dams has limited opportunities for groundwater recharge.
• Climate Change: Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns adversely affect groundwater aquifer recharge rates, making them more vulnerable to depletion. Deforestation and soil erosion also hinder the natural replenishment of aquifers, while climate change-related events like droughts and floods further stress groundwater resources.

What are the Impacts of Groundwater Depletion?

• Reduced Crop Yields: Lower groundwater levels restrict irrigation capabilities, thereby diminishing crop productivity and threatening food security.
• Urban Water Scarcity: Cities increasingly depend on groundwater; depletion leads to higher costs and a strain on municipal services, compromising water availability.
• Public Health Risks: With only 4% of the world's freshwater resources available to 18% of its population, declining water quality due to overextraction and contamination heightens risks of waterborne diseases and heavy metal exposure.
• Ecosystem Loss: Reduced water tables disrupt wetlands, forests, and aquatic ecosystems, leading to biodiversity loss.
• Increased Drought Risks: Groundwater depletion diminishes resilience to droughts, which are projected to become more frequent due to climate change.

What are the Challenges in Groundwater Management in India?

• Overexploitation: The Green Revolution escalated groundwater dependence for food security, leading to numerous borewell installations. The Central Groundwater Board indicates that many blocks are overexploited, particularly in north-western, western, and southern India.
• Climate Induced Challenges: Erratic rainfall and rising pollution levels worsen water scarcity. Groundwater is crucial, providing 85% of rural domestic water, 45% of urban water, and over 60% of agricultural irrigation.
• Weak Regulatory Framework: Current regulations cover only 14% of overexploited blocks, allowing unchecked extraction. Early stage regulatory enforcement is lacking, exacerbating resource scarcity.
• Community Involvement and Institutional Weaknesses: While Participatory Groundwater Management (PGM) has empowered communities in certain areas, challenges persist due to weak institutional frameworks and supply failures. Informal committees often lose effectiveness post-project completion, lacking long-term sustainability.
• Subsidies and Usage: Subsidized power for water pumping fuels excessive groundwater extraction. While industrial and domestic usage has surged by 34%, irrigation-related demand has dropped by 36%.

What are the Strategies for Sustainable Groundwater Management?

• Address Demand and Supply:
  • Supply Side: Initiatives like watershed management and aquifer recharge are essential, but must be paired with demand-side strategies.
  • Demand Side: Encouraging water-efficient irrigation techniques (e.g., drip systems) and promoting less water-intensive crops can alleviate pressure on groundwater resources.
• Community Participation: Increasing community involvement in governance enhances sustainability, as evidenced by successful PGM implementations in well-defined aquifer regions. Empowering local institutions and building community capacity are vital for effective management.
• Regulatory Enhancements: Implementing comprehensive local regulations before blocks reach overexploitation can help prevent further depletion. The long-term viability of institutions like Water User Associations (WUAs) is crucial for sustainable groundwater management.
• Cross Sectoral Reform: Reforms that diminish incentives for overexploitation, such as revising power subsidies, are critical for sustainable practices. Redirecting support towards climate-smart agriculture and aligning energy policies with water conservation goals can promote responsible resource use.

Drishti Mains Question

Q. Analyze the impact of urbanization and industrialization on India’s groundwater resources, noting states with significant depletion. Discuss associated challenges and propose mitigation measures.