NCERT Summary: The French Revolution (Class 9) | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

The French Revolution is considered the most important landmark in human history. The revolution occurred in 1789 and swept away the existing political institutions, overthrew the French Monarchy, and aimed at establishing an egalitarian society and responsible government.

• On the morning of 14 July 1789, Paris was abuzz with tension. 
• Fearing a military crackdown ordered by the king, around 7,000 citizens, driven by rumors and panic, formed a militia and stormed the Bastille, a symbol of royal oppression. 
• Their daring assault, fueled by hopes of finding weapons and ammunition, not only led to the fall of this fortress-prison but also ignited widespread unrest. 
• The destruction of the Bastille, along with rising bread prices and growing discontent, marked the start of a revolutionary chainof events that would ultimately led to the fall of French Monarchy.

French Society During The Late Eighteenth Century

• In 1774, Louis XVI, a young king married to Marie Antoinette, inherited a France in serious financial trouble. The country was deeply in debt due to long wars and the extravagant costs of the lavish court at Versailles.
• France's support for the American colonies in their fight against Britain only worsened the financial strain, increasing the debt to over 3 billion livres and leading to high interest rates on loans.
• To cover with expenses like the army, government, and court, the king had to raise taxes. However, only the common people, or the Third Estate, paid these taxes.  
• The term ‘Old Regime’ is usually used to describe thesociety and institutions of France before 1789. 
• French society before 1789 was divided into three estates, known as a society of estates or feudalism.
  The estates are constituted as follows:
  (a) The First Estateconsisted of the clergy.
  The clergy were exempted from paying taxes to the king.
  (b) The Second Estateconsisted of nobility and was also exempted from taxes.
  The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges, which included feudal dues that they extracted from the peasants.
  (c) The Third Estateconsisted of big businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers, peasants and artisans, landless labour, servants, etc. The Third Estate comprised both rich and poor persons.

• The Church too extracted its share of taxes called tithes from the peasants, and finally, all members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state. These included a direct tax, called taille, and a number of indirect taxes which were levied on articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco. The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the third estate alone.

The Struggle to Survive

• From 1715 to 1789, France’s population grew from about 23 million to 28 million. This rapid increase led to a surge in demand for food, especially bread, which was a staple for most people. 
• However, grain production could not keep up with this rising demand, causing bread prices to soar. Workers, mainly employed in workshops with fixed wages, saw their earnings fall behind the rising cost of living.
• As a result, the gap between the rich and the poor widened. Conditions worsened further when poor harvests due to droughts or hail hit, leading to frequent subsistence crisesduring the Old Regime.

How a Subsistence  Crisis Happens

Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges

• Peasant and Worker Revolts: In the past, peasants and workers protested against rising taxes and food shortages. However, they lacked the means and proper programmes to bring about significant social or economic changes.
• Rise of the Middle Class: During the eighteenth century, a new social group called the middle class emerged. These individuals earned wealth through overseas trade and the manufacture of goods like woollen, and silk textiles. This group became prosperous and educated, and they rejected the idea of privilege by birth.
• Merchants, Lawyers, and Professionals: The third estate also included merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, and administrative officials. They believed that social status should depend on a person’s merit rather than their birth.
• Philosophical Influence:
  • John Locke: In Two Treatises of Government, Locke challenged the idea of the divine and absolute right of kings.
  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau: He proposed a government based on a social contract between people and their representatives.
  • Montesquieu: In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu suggested the division of power into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. This idea later influenced the US constitution.
• Spread of Ideas: The ideas of these philosophers were discussed in salons and coffee-houses, and circulated through books and newspapers. Many people, even those who couldn’t read, had access to these ideas as they were often read aloud in groups.
• Anger Against Privilege: News that Louis XVI intended to impose more taxes to cover state expenses caused widespread anger and protest against the privileges of the aristocracy.

• The National Assembly completed the drafting of the constitution in 1791. 
• Power was now separated and assigned to different institutions- thelegislature, executive, and judiciarymaking France a constitutional monarchy.
• The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected.
• The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, and equality before the law are recognizedas ‘natural and inalienable' rights.

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

• Equality and Natural Rights
  Men are born and remain free and have equal rights. The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man, which include liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.
• Sovereignty and Authority
  The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation. No group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.

• Liberty and the Law: Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others. The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society. Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives, and all citizens are equal before it.
  
• Legal Protections and Freedoms: No man is accused, arrested, or detained except in cases determined by the law. Every citizen may speak, write, and print freely, taking responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.
  
• Taxation and Property Rights: For the maintenance of the public force and the expenses of administration, a common tax is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means. Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it unless a legally established public necessity requires it, and just compensation must be given in advance.

The majority of people at that time could not read and write, so he used many symbols to convey the content of the Declaration of rights:

• The broken chain: Stands for the act of becoming free.
• The bundle of rods: It implies that strength lies in unity as one can be easily broken but not an entire bundle.
  
• The eye within a triangle radiating light: The eye stands for knowledge. The rays of the sun will drive away from the clouds of ignorance.
  
• Sceptre: It is a symbol of royal power.
  
• The snake biting its tail to form a ring, a symbol of eternity.
  
• Red cap: A cap is worn by a slave upon becoming free.
  
• Blue, White, and Red: These are the National colours of France.
  
• Winged woman: Personification of the law.
  
• The law tablet: The law is the same for all.
  

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

• Although Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia.

• The National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria.People saw this as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies all over Europe.
• The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. 
• Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of action. 
• The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins, which got its name from the former convent of St. Jacob in Paris.
• In the summer of 1792, the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food. On the morning of August 10, they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries and took the king hostage for several hours.
• Elections were held. The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On 21 September 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France a Republic.
• Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on charges of treason. On 21 January 1793, he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde.

(a) The Reign of Terror

The period between 1793-94 is referred to as the “Reign of Terror”.

• During this period, Robespierre followed a severe control and punishment policy.
• Ex-nobles and clergy, even members of his own party who did not agree with his methods were arrested and imprisoned.
• France witnessed the guillotine of thousands of nobles and innocent men. The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. 
• Robespierre issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on prices. Churches were shut down.
• Finally, Robespierre was guillotined in July 1794.

(b) A Directory Rules France

• The reign of terror ended in 1794. The Jacobin government fell, and a new constitution was prepared by an elected convention providing for a republican form of government with a legislature and an executive body called the Directory. 
• The Directory was an executive made up of five members. Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them. 
• The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

Did Women Have a Revolution?

• Most women of the third estate had to work for a living, and did not have access to education or job training. Working women had to for their families; their wages were lower than those of men.
• In order to discuss and voice their interests, women started their own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. One of their main demands was that women enjoy the same political rights as men.
  
  
• The early revolutionary government implemented several laws that significantly improved the lives of women. These included the establishment of state schools and compulsory education for all girls. Women could no longer be forced into marriage against their will, and both men and women were granted the right to file for divorce. Additionally, women were now able to receive job training, pursue careers as artists, or even run their own small businesses.
• During the Reign of Terror, the new government-issued laws ordered the closure of women’s clubs and banning their political activities.
• The fight for the vote was carried out through an International suffrage movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

Some of the basic rights set forth in Olympe de Gouges’ Declaration. 

1. Equality: Women are born free and have equal rights to men.
2. Political Purpose: Political associations should protect the natural rights of both women and men, including liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.
3. Sovereignty: Sovereignty belongs to the nation, which consists of both women and men.
4. Legal Equality: Laws must reflect the general will, apply equally to all citizens, and allow everyone to participate in their creation. Citizens should access honors and public positions based on merit.
5. Legal Accountability: Women, like men, are subject to the law and must adhere to it.

The Abolition of Slavery

• One of the most significant social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in French colonies. The Caribbean colonies—Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Saint-Domingue—were crucial for producing goods like tobacco, indigo, sugar, and coffee.
• A shortage of European labor in these distant lands resulted in the establishment of a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas starting in the seventeenth century.
• French merchants from ports like Bordeaux and Nantes engaged with local chieftains in Africa to acquire slaves, reflecting a complicated network of trade relationships. These slaves were then shipped across the Atlantic to the Caribbean under harsh conditions and sold to plantation owners.

• Slave labor was essential for meeting the European demand for sugar, coffee, and indigo, contributing to the economic prosperity of French port cities.
• Throughout the eighteenth century, slavery faced little opposition in France. Although the National Assembly debated extending human rights to all French subjects, including those in the colonies, it avoided passing any laws due to pressure from business interests reliant on the slave trade.
• It was only in 1794 that the Convention legislated the abolition of slavery in French colonies. However, this abolition was temporary, as Napoleon reinstated slavery in 1804.
• Plantation owners understood their freedom as including the right to enslave African Negroes in pursuit of their economic interests. It wasn't until 1848 that slavery was permanently abolished in the French colonies.

The Revolution and Everyday Life

Conclusion: The Rise And Fall Of Napoleon

• In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself Emperor of France.
  
  
• He embarked on a campaign to conquer neighboring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family.Napoleon saw his role as a Moderniser of Europe.
• He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weight and measures provided by the decimal system. 
• Initially, many saw Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom to the people. Soon, however, the Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force.

Old NCERT

Causes of the French Revolution

1. Political Causes

• The political structure of the French state was highly unpopular with the people who were burdened with heavy taxes and insecure conditions of life and property.
• The extravagance and inefficiency of the Bourbon Kings exacerbated the despotism and tyranny associated with the divine rights of the kings.
• Louis XV indulged in a life of ease and pleasure and was not interested in administrative reforms or the welfare of the people.
• Louis XVI though good-natured was completely under the influence of incompetent and corrupt ministers and a domineering queen of Austria, Marie Antoinette.
• There was an absence of any representative body to voice the needs of the people. Local bodies called Parliament were courts of justice rather than voices of the people.

2. Social Forces

• The unfair division of French society and its feudal nature was also responsible for the revolution.

• The first two estates enjoyed all the privileges and benefits in society whereas the third estate was fraught with inequalities and discrimination. Most of the burden of taxation was borne by the least privileged and most impoverished third estate.
• The middle class was most receptive to new ideas and values because they were educated and had a broader outlook. They denied the traditional ideas of rights and privileges based solely on birth and instead favored merit-based criteria.

3. Economic Unrest

• In the 18th century the condition of the common man had become pathetic, the problem of subsistence was due to the failure of crops and an increase in the prices of food grains.
• In the second half of the18th century, the French economy had started expanding, but itsfinancial impact was uneven, the hardest hit was the Third Estate.

• Between 1689 and 1783 France fought several long and exhausting wars which proved to be disastrous both in terms of French Manpower and finances, not only leading to mounting debts but interest on these debts also multiplied.
• To meet its mounting costs, the government increased taxes. The peasantry was the hardest hit who owned the minimum land and paid the maximum taxes.
• Taxes were called "Taille" the direct land tax, a salt tax known as Gabelle, feudal dues or payments were taken by nobility and taxes known as Tithe was taken by the Church.

Effects of the French Revolution

(a) Effect on France

• The French Revolution put an end to the arbitrary rule in France and paved the way for the establishment of a republic there. 
• The special privileges of the high order were abolished and led to the regeneration of France on the basis of social equality.
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizengranted freedom and individual liberty to all without any distinction of class or creed. Many reforms were introduced in the administration. 
• The higher and more important posts in the state were opened to talented people. All were granted religious freedom. 
• The Napoleonic Code introduced a uniform system of weights and measures based on the decimal system, making it clear and simple.

(b) Effects on Europe

• Equality:The French Revolution had a great influence on Europe. Equality was one of the main principles of the French Revolution. it implied the equality of all before the law and the abolition of privileges enjoyed by the upper order in society. It established social, economic, and political equality in European countries.
• Liberty: Revolutionary idea of liberty was hailed all over Europe. it implied social, political, and religious freedom. The declaration of rights made people understand the importance of personal liberty and rights.
• Sovereignty:The French revolution emphasized the fact that sovereignty resides in the general public and law should be based on the will of the people. It infused the spirit of nationalism and patriotism in the people.

(c) Global Impact

• The French Revolution had a global impact which fostered equalityin India.
• The UN Charter of Human Rights also embodies the principles of the French Revolution as laid down in the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizens.

Difficult Words

1. Livre –Unit of currency in France, discontinued in 1794
2. Clergy –Group of persons invested with special functions in the church
3. Tithe –A tax levied by the church, comprising one-tenth of the agricultural produce
4. Taille –Tax to be paid directly to the state
5. Subsistence crisis – An extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered
6. Anonymous – One whose name remains unknown
7. Chateau– Castle or stately residence belonging to a king or a nobleman
8. Manor – An estate consisting of the lord’s lands and his mansion  
9. Convent – Building belonging to a community devoted to a religious life
10. Treason– Betrayal of one’s country or government
11. Negroes – A term used for the indigenous people of Africa south of the Sahara. It is a derogatory term not in common use any longer.
12. Emancipation– The act of freeing

Some important dates

• 1774: Louis XVI becomes king of France, faces empty treasury and growing discontent within society of the Old Regime. 
• 1789:Convocation of Estates General, Third Estate forms National Assembly, the Bastille is stormed, peasant revolts in the countryside. 
• 1791:A constitution is framed to limit the powers of the king and to guarantee basic rights to all human beings.
• 1792-93: France becomes a republic, the king is beheaded. Overthrow of the Jacobin republic, a Directory rules France. 
• 1804: Napoleon becomes emperor of France, annexes large parts of Europe. 
• 1815: Napoleon defeated at Waterloo.