NCERT Summary: Nomadic Empires (Class 11) | Old & New NCERTs for IAS Preparation (Must Read) - UPSC PDF Download

Introduction

The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan, established a vast empire that stretched across Europe and Asia during the 13th and 14th centuries. Despite their immense power, the Mongols produced very little literature themselves. Instead, we rely on accounts written by city-based literati who chronicled, traveled, and documented the Mongolian way of life. However, these authors often had a limited understanding and a biased perspective of nomadic life.

The success of the Mongol Empire attracted many travelers from diverse backgrounds, including Buddhists, Confucians, Christians, Turks, and Muslims. Some of these travelers wrote sympathetic accounts of the Mongols, while others were more critical. The earliest narrative about Genghis Khan is found in "The Secret History of the Mongols," which provides insights into his life and the Mongolian culture.

Background of the Mongols

The Mongols were a diverse group of people who spoke similar languages. Some of them were pastoralists, while others were hunter-gatherers. They lived as nomads in the steppes of Central Asia. The Mongols were organized into patrilineal lineages, where wealthier families owned more animals and pasture land, giving them greater influence in local politics.

During harsh winters or droughts, conflicts would arise among families over pasture land. There were also predatory raids in search of livestock. In such situations, groups of families would form temporary alliances for defense or offense, but these alliances were short-lived.

Genghis Khan's Political System (Comparison with Attila's)

Genghis Khan's confederation of Mongol and Turkish tribes was likely similar in size to Attila's fifth-century confederation. However, Genghis Khan's political system was more durable and stable than Attila's.

• Genghis Khan's system survived its founder and was able to withstand large and better-equipped armies from China, Iran, and Eastern Europe.
• It was also capable of administering complex agrarian economies and urban settlements far from the Mongolian homeland.

The Great Wall of China

The Great Wall of China served as a visible reminder of the disturbance and fear caused by nomadic raids on the agrarian societies of northern China and Central Asia.

Genghis Khan's Early Career

Genghis Khan was born in 1162 near the Onon River, in what is now northern Mongolia. His birth name was Temujin, which means "blacksmith." He was the third son of Yesugei, a minor chieftain. When Genghis was just 9 years old, his father was murdered by the neighboring Tatars. After his father's death, Genghis and his brothers were raised by their mother. The family faced many hardships during these years. At one point, Genghis was captured and enslaved.

• Shortly after his marriage to Borte, she was kidnapped, and Genghis had to fight to rescue her.
• He also formed important alliances with Boghurchu, a friend; Jamuqa, his brother; and Ong Khan, an old uncle.

Rise to Power

• Between 1180 and 1190, Genghis used his alliance with Ong Khan to fight against Jamuqa. This victory boosted his confidence, and he began to challenge other tribes.
• Genghis Khan defeated several tribes, including the Tatars, Naimans, and Keraits. In 1206, he finally defeated the powerful Jamuqa.

Becoming Great Khan

• After Jamuqa's defeat, an assembly of Mongol chieftains, known as the  quriltai  , declared Genghis Khan the Great Khan of the Mongols.
• He adopted the title Genghis Khan, which means "Oceanic Ruler" or "Universal Ruler."

Campaigns of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan transformed the Mongol people into a more effective and disciplined military force. His initial focus was on conquering China, which was then divided into three kingdoms: the Jin in the north, the Xi Xia in the northwest, and the Song in the south.

• By 1209, Genghis Khan had defeated the Xi Xia.
• The Great Wall of China was breached by the Mongols by 1213, and Peking (modern-day Beijing) was sacked in 1215.
• The long and arduous battles against the Jin continued until 1234.
• However, Genghis Khan was pleased with the progress of his campaigns and returned to his Mongolian homeland in 1216, leaving military affairs to his subordinates.

Expansion into Central Asia

• After defeating the Qara Khitai, who controlled the Tian Shan mountains northwest of China, in 1218, Mongol dominions expanded to the Amu Darya and the states of Transoxiana and Khwarazm.
• The Shah of Khwarazm, Muhammad, executed Mongol ambassadors, prompting a severe response from Genghis Khan.
• The Mongols retaliated by destroying several cities, including Samarkand, Nishapur, Bukhara, and Herat.

Genghis Khan and India

Mongol troops chasing the Khwarazm Shah advanced into Azerbaijan and defeated Russian forces. Another group followed the Shah's son, Jalaluddin, into Afghanistan and the Sindh province.

At the banks of the Indus River, Genghis Khan contemplated returning to Mongolia through North India and Assam. However, due to the heat, unfamiliar terrain, and bad omens reported by his soothsayer, he changed his mind. As a result, India was spared from Genghis Khan's invasion. He passed away in 1227.

Reasons Behind the Success of Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan's military successes were remarkable, and they stemmed from his ability to innovate and adapt various aspects of steppe combat into effective military strategies. Here are some key factors that contributed to his success:

• Horse Riding and Hunting Skills: The Mongols and Turks were expert horse riders and hunters, which provided their army with speed and mobility. Their proficiency in rapid shooting with bows and arrows from horseback was further enhanced through regular hunting expeditions, giving them a significant advantage in battle.
• Winter Campaigns: Genghis Khan's forces were able to conduct campaigns in the depths of winter by using frozen rivers as highways to reach enemy cities and camps. This innovative approach caught many opponents off guard.
• Light and Terrain Mobility: The Mongols' knowledge of moving lightly through various terrains became an effective military strategy. This allowed them to maneuver quickly and efficiently, adapting to different landscapes.
• Siege Techniques: Genghis Khan quickly recognized the importance of siege engines and naphtha bombardment in warfare. His engineers developed light and portable equipment that could be used against fortified positions, giving him an edge in sieges.

Military Organization under the Mongols

1. Composition of the Army

• All able-bodied adult males in a Mongol tribe were expected to bear arms and could be called upon to form the armed forces when necessary.
• Genghis Khan’s army was made up of different people, which complicated the previously undifferentiated and smaller army into a mixed group.

2. New Military System

• Genghis Khan changed the old steppe system of military organization, which was based on decimal units of 10, 100, 1,000, and 10,000 soldiers.
• He divided the old tribal groupings and redistributed their members into new military units, ensuring that no individual could move from their allotted group without permission.

3. Formation of Units

• The largest unit of soldiers, known as the "tumen," now included different tribes and clans, reflecting the mixed nature of the army.
• Military units were to serve under Genghis Khan’s four sons and specially chosen captains of his army units, called "noyan."

4. Role of Loyal Followers

• A band of followers who had served Genghis Khan loyally through difficult times also became important within the new military organization.

Conferring Titles

Genghis Khan publicly declared 'blood brothers' titles to military personnel. He also honored lesser individuals with the title of bondsmen, signifying their close relationship with Genghis Khan. This practice did not uphold the rights of former clan chieftains, and the new aristocracy derived its status from its proximity to Genghis Khan.

Political Organisation under Genghis Khan

• Genghis Khan entrusted the governance of newly-conquered territories to his four sons, a concept referred to as ulus, which initially did not imply fixed territories.
• He envisioned his sons ruling the empire collectively, with military contingents from individual princes stationed in each ulus.
• The shared dominion among family members was emphasized during the assembly of chieftains, known as quriltais.
• Quriltais were crucial for making collective decisions regarding family or state matters, including seasonal campaigns, distribution of plunder, pasture lands, and succession.
• A rapid courier system connected distant areas, maintained by the contribution of a tenth of their herd by Mongol nomads. This levy, called qubcur tax, was willingly paid by nomads for the various benefits it provided.

Communication and Trade Under the Mongols

Courier System

• Genghis Khan established a rapid courier system to connect distant regions of his regime. This system involved fresh mounts and dispatch riders stationed at regular intervals. Mongol nomads contributed a tenth of their herd, either horses or livestock, to maintain this communication network. This contribution was known as the qubcur tax, which nomads willingly paid due to the various benefits it provided.
• After Genghis Khan's death, the courier system, known as yam, was further improved, becoming faster and more reliable, surprising travelers with its efficiency. This system allowed the Great Khan to monitor developments across the vast expanse of their regime.

 Trade and Travel

• Following the establishment of peace after the Mongol conquests, known as Pax Mongolica, trade connections flourished. Travel and trade along the Silk Route increased under Mongol authority, extending north of Mongolia and to Karakorum.
• Communication and ease of travel were vital for maintaining Mongol authority. Travelers were issued passes, known as paiza in Persian and gerege in Mongolian, for safe conduct. Traders also paid for similar passes, facilitating their movements.

Administrative Features of Genghis Khan's Rule

During Genghis Khan's reign, civil administrators were recruited from the lands that had been conquered. However, these administrators were deployed to distant areas. For example, Chinese secretaries were sent to Iran, while Persians were assigned to China.

These administrators had to maintain the trust of their superiors by consistently increasing revenues. Interestingly, they could also command significant influence in their respective regions.

Yasa (Legal Code of Genghis Khan)

• Yasa was likely officially proclaimed by Genghis Khan at the Quariltai in 1206. Initially, the term was written as 'yasaq,' meaning 'law,' 'decree,' or 'order.' By the mid-thirteenth century, the Mongols began using 'yasa' to refer more generally to the 'legal code of Genghis Khan.'
• The yasa was probably a compilation of the customary traditions of the Mongol tribes. It served to unite the Mongol people around a shared set of beliefs and recognized their affinity to Genghis Khan and his descendants. Even as the Mongols absorbed aspects of sedentary life, the yasa helped them retain their ethnic identity and impose their 'law' on defeated subjects.
• This ideology, inspired by Genghis Khan's vision, was crucial for the construction of a Mongol universal dominion. It empowered the Mongols and was vital in their efforts to establish a vast empire.

Genghis Khan and the Mongols in History

• Genghis Khan is often seen in history as a conqueror who destroyed cities and caused the deaths of many people. However, for the Mongols, Genghis Khan was the greatest leader ever. He united the Mongol people, ended their internal wars, brought them prosperity, and restored trade routes and markets.
• The Mongols were a diverse group of people with different beliefs, including Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam. Despite their personal faiths, the Mongol rulers did not let their beliefs influence public policy. They hired administrators and soldiers from various conquered lands, which was unusual for that time. The Mongols set an example for the Mughals in India, and even Timur, another ruler who wanted universal power, was hesitant to call himself a king because of Genghis Khan.
• After years of being under Soviet control, Mongolia is now shaping its identity as an independent nation. Genghis Khan has become an iconic figure for the Mongolian people, helping to revive memories of a great past as they forge a national identity that can lead them into the future.