NCERT Summary: Paths to Modernisation (Class 11) | History for UPSC CSE PDF Download

Paths to Modernization

The theme explores the intriguing story of how Japan and China, due to their different historical circumstances, followed distinct paths towards becoming independent and modern nations.

 China 

•   Vast continental country  
•   Three major river systems: the Yellow, the Yangtze, and the Pearl  
•   Mountainous regions  
•   Diverse ethnic groups including Han, Uighur, Hui, Manchu, and Tibetan  
•   Languages: Cantonese, Chinese  
•   Food staples include wheat, pastries, dumplings, dim sum, and rice  

 Japan 

•   Small island nation consisting of major islands: Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Hokkaido  
•   Lacks major river systems  
•   Approximately 50% of the land is mountainous, and the country is in an active earthquake zone  
•   Homogeneous ethnic group  
•   Language: Japanese  
•   Food staples include rice and fish, with dishes like sashimi and sushi  

Political System in 12th Century Japan

• By the 12th century, Japan's political power shifted from the emperor to the shoguns, with the shogunate established in Edo, which is present-day Tokyo.
• The country was organized into 250 domains, each ruled by a daimyo or lord. To prevent rebellion, the daimyo were required to spend time in the capital.
• The samurai class became the ruling elite, serving the shoguns and daimyo.

Changes in the 16th Century

• Peasantry Disarmament: To reduce conflict, the peasantry was disarmed.

• Daimyo Autonomy: Daimyo were granted greater autonomy.

• Land Surveys: Conducted to assess land productivity and revenue potential.

Economic and Cultural Growth

• Japan saw the rise of major cities like Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto, leading to the development of a commercial economy and rich culture.
• The increased use of money and the establishment of a stock market introduced new economic practices.

Social and Cultural Changes

• There were notable social and cultural shifts, including a questioning of Chinese influence and a promotion of Japanese literature.

The Meiji Restoration

• In 1853, the United States, led by Commodore Matthew Perry, made demands for trade and diplomatic relations with Japan. Perry's arrival marked a significant turning point in Japanese politics.
• In 1868, a movement succeeded in removing the Shogun from power and restoring the emperor to Edo, now known as Tokyo.
• The Japanese were aware of European colonization in countries like India, which influenced their response. Some scholars advocated for learning from Europe, while others wanted to exclude Europeans entirely. There were differing opinions on how open Japan should be to the outside world.
• The government adopted a policy under the slogan "rich country, strong army" to foster a sense of nationhood and transform subjects into citizens. The new government also aimed to establish the "emperor system," which included the emperor, bureaucracy, and military.
• The emperor was portrayed as a descendant of the Sun Goddess and a leader of westernization. His birthday was declared a national holiday, and he began wearing western-style military uniforms.

Meiji Reforms

Educational Reforms

• Universal and Compulsory Education: The Meiji government implemented a universal and compulsory education system for boys and girls starting from the 1870s.
• Curriculum: The curriculum was based on Western ideas but emphasized the study of Japanese history.
• Ministry of Education: The ministry controlled the curriculum, selected textbooks, and conducted teacher training.
• Textbook Content: Textbooks taught children to respect their parents, be loyal to the nation, and become good citizens.

Administrative Reforms

• New Administrative System: The Meiji government introduced a new administrative system by altering old village and domain boundaries.
• Revenue and Services: Each administrative unit was required to have sufficient revenue to maintain local schools and health facilities.
• Military Recruitment: Administrative units also served as centers for army recruitment.
• Military Service: All young men over twenty were required to undergo a period of military service.
• Modern Military Force: A modern military force was developed during this period.

Constitutional Reforms

• The government established a legal framework to oversee the formation of political groups, regulate meetings, and enforce strict censorship.
• These measures faced significant opposition.

Economic Reforms

• The modernization of the economy was a crucial aspect of the Meiji reforms.
• To fund these reforms, an agricultural tax was imposed.
• The first railway line was built between Tokyo and Yokohama during 1870-72.
• Machinery necessary for the textile industry was imported from Europe.
• Foreign technicians were brought in to train workers and teach in universities and schools, while Japanese students were sent abroad for education.
• In 1872, modern banking institutions were established.
• The government supported companies like Mitsubishi and Sumitomo with subsidies and tax benefits, helping them become major shipbuilders.
• Until the end of World War II, Zaibatsu, large business organizations controlled by individual families, dominated the economy.
• The population grew from 35 million in 1872 to 55 million in 1920.
• To manage this growth, the government encouraged migration, initially to the northern island of Hokkaido, and later to Hawaii, Brazil, and Japan's expanding colonial empire.
• As industries progressed, there was a shift of people from rural areas to urban centers.

Industrial Workers

• The workforce in industries increased from 700,000 in 1870 to 4 million in 1913.
• They were employed in units that lacked electricity and machinery.
• Women constituted half of the workforce in modern factories.
• Women organized the first modern strike in 1886.
• It was only in the 1930s that male workers began to outnumber women in factories.
• The size of factories expanded from fewer than 5 workers to over 100 workers.
• The rapid industrialization and the increasing demand for natural resources like timber led to environmental degradation.
• In 1897, Tanaka Shozo initiated the first protest movement against industrial pollution, rallying 800 villagers.

Aggressive Nationalism

• The Meiji Constitution established a parliament known as the Diet, but its powers were limited. Initially, the leaders who restored the Meiji government held significant control.
• They founded political parties and formed ministries, but over time, they gradually lost power to national unity and cabinets formed along party lines.
• The emperor was the commander-in-chief of the army, and this was interpreted to mean that the army and navy had independent authority. In 1899, a significant decision was made by the prime minister, stipulating that only military generals and admirals could become ministers.
• These developments strengthened the military, driven by the fear that Japan was vulnerable to the Western powers.

Westernization and Tradition

Different Perspectives on Japan's Relationship with Other Countries

• Fukuzawa Yukichi's View: Some intellectuals, like Fukuzawa Yukichi, believed that Japan should "expel Asia." He meant that Japan needed to shed its Asian characteristics and become part of the West.
• Questioning Western Ideas: The next generation questioned the idea of simply accepting Western concepts. Philosopher Miyake Setsurei argued that each nation should develop its unique talents for the benefit of world civilization.
• Attraction to Western Liberalism: Some individuals were drawn to Western liberalism and desired a democratic Japan rather than a military one. Ueki Emori, a leader of the Popular Rights Movement, called for the establishment of a constitutional government.
• Advocacy for Women's Voting Rights: Other groups advocated for voting rights for women, which pressured the government to announce a constitution.

Daily Life

The shift to a modern society was evident in the daily life of the people. The traditional patriarchal family system was replaced by nuclear families. This new concept of family brought about different needs for various domestic goods, housing, and family entertainment.

Symposium on 'Overcoming Modernity' in Japan (1943)

• In 1943, a symposium titled 'Overcoming Modernity' took place in Japan. This event focused on the challenge of being modern while resisting Western influence.
• Moroi Saburo, a composer, raised an important question during the symposium. He wanted to know how to save music from being merely sensory stimulation and restore it as an art of the spirit. He criticized the practice of composing Japanese music using Western instruments.
• Nishitani Keiji, a philosopher at the symposium, defined 'modern' as the combination of three Western ideas: the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the development of natural sciences. He believed that Japan's moral strength had allowed it to avoid colonialism and that Japan had a responsibility to create a new order, envisioning a Greater East Asia.

Japan as a Global Economic Power

• Rise After WWII: After losing in World War II, Japan was demilitarized and a new constitution was introduced. Article 9 of this constitution, known as the "no war clause," renounced war as a means of state policy.
• Reforms and Reconstruction: Japan implemented agrarian reforms, re-established trade unions, and attempted to dismantle monopoly houses known as zaibatsu. Political parties were revived, and elections were held in 1946, granting women the right to vote.
• Post-War Miracle: The rebuilding of Japan's economy after its defeat was termed a post-war miracle, with roots in its long history. The demand created by the Korean and Vietnamese wars contributed to this economic recovery.
• 1964 Tokyo Olympics: The 1964 Olympics in Tokyo are often seen as a symbol of Japan's reemergence as a global power.
• Shinkansen (Bullet Trains): The introduction of the Shinkansen high-speed rail network, or bullet trains, showcased Japan's ability to utilize advanced technologies.
• Environmental and Health Issues: The rapid industrialization brought about health and environmental issues. Cadmium poisoning and mercury poisoning in Minamata occurred in the 1960s, and air pollution became a problem in the 1970s.
• Civil Society Movements: The 1960s saw the rise of civil society movements and pressure groups demanding recognition of these environmental problems and compensation for victims.
• Government Action: By the 1980s, the Japanese government took strong measures to regulate environmental issues.

Modern History of China

The contemporary history of China has centered around three main issues:

• Reclaiming sovereignty.
• Ending the humiliation of foreign occupation.
• Achieving equality and development.

Chinese discussions have been influenced by the perspectives of three groups:

Three Groups in Chinese Debates

Lian Qichao

• Advocated for using traditional ideas in new and innovative ways to meet Western challenges.

Republican Revolutionaries (e.g., Sun Yat-sen)

• Inspired by ideas from Japan and the West.
• Focused on driving out foreigners, controlling natural resources, and reducing inequalities and poverty.
• Advocated for reforms such as abolishing foot binding, female subordination, and promoting equality in marriage and economic development.
• Emphasized the ‘four great needs’: clothing, food, housing, and transportation.

Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

• Aimed to end long-standing inequalities and expel foreign influences.

Establishing the Republic

• The Manchu dynasty was overthrown in 1911, leading to the proclamation of a republic under Sun Yat-sen.
• Sun Yat-sen’s program, known as the Three Principles (San min Chui) included nationalism, democracy, and socialism.
• The Guomintang party, led by Chiang Kai-shek, launched a military campaign to control warlords and eliminate communists.
• Sun Yat-sen’s ideas on regulating capital and equalizing land were not implemented.
• The party imposed military order instead of addressing peasant issues.
• Chiang Kai-shek promoted traditional virtues for women, focusing on charity, appearance, speech, and work, confining them to household roles.

The Rise of the Communist Party of China

In 1937, Japan invaded China, causing severe damage and hardship to the Chinese people. This invasion weakened China and devastated the lives of ordinary citizens.

During this period, China faced two major crises:

• Ecological Crisis: This included problems like soil exhaustion, deforestation, and frequent floods, which severely impacted the environment and agriculture.
• Socio-economic Crisis: The land tenure system was exploitative, many people were in debt, technology was primitive, and communication systems were poor, making life difficult for the population.
• The Communist Party of China (CCP) was established in 1921, with Mao Zedong emerging as a key leader. Unlike the Russian Revolution, which was led by the working class in cities, Mao focused on the peasantry as the base for his revolutionary program.
• From 1928 to 1934, Mao and the communists took refuge in Jiangxi to protect themselves from attacks by the Guomintang. During this time, Mao developed his radical ideas.
• He established a Peasant Soviet, where lands were confiscated and redistributed to peasants. Mao also promoted the organization of women’s associations and introduced a new marriage law that prohibited arranged marriages, banned the buying and selling of marriage contracts, and simplified the process of divorce.

Long March

The Guomintang's blockade forced the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to find a new base, leading to the Long March (1934-35) over 6,000 miles to Shanxi. At their new base in Yanan, the CCP developed three key programs: ending warlordism, implementing land reforms, and fighting imperialism. During the war with Japan, the CCP and Guomintang worked together, but post-war, the communists defeated the Guomintang and seized power.

Establishing the New Democracy: 1949-65

The People's Republic of China was founded in 1949 on the principles of "New Democracy." The government took control of the economy, abolishing private enterprise and private land ownership.

The Great Leap Forward Movement

In 1958, the Great Leap Forward movement was initiated to encourage rapid industrialization across the country. During this period:

• People began setting up steel furnaces in their backyards.
• People’s communes were established in rural areas, where land would be collectively owned and cultivated.
• Mao was successful in mobilizing the masses to achieve the goals set by the party.
• Mao aimed to create a socialist individual with a strong love for the fatherland, people, labor, science, and public property.
• However, the commune system was modified, and the backyard furnaces proved to be industrially unusable.

Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution

The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution was launched in 1965 due to a conflict between the idea of the socialist individual and its critics. During this period:

• The Red Guards, consisting of students and the army, were mobilized against old culture, customs, and habits.
• Students and professionals were sent to rural areas to learn from the masses.
• Ideology and slogans replaced rational debate.
• The Cultural Revolution weakened the party and disrupted the economy and educational system.

In 1975, the party shifted its focus back to promoting greater social discipline and building an industrial economy.

Reforms from 1978 Deng Xiaoping

• Deng Xiaoping maintained strong party control while introducing a socialist market economy.
• The party set its goal as the Four Modernizations : Science, Industry, Agriculture, and Defence.
• A fifth modernization, Democracy, was also proclaimed.
• In 1989, many intellectuals called for greater openness and an end to " ossified dogmas " ( sushaozhi ).
• Student demonstrators at Tiananmen Square in Beijing were brutally repressed.
• The post-reform period saw debates on ways to develop China, with a growing revival of traditional Confucian ideas.

The Story of Taiwan

• Taiwan had been a Japanese colony since the 1894-95 war with Japan.
• The Cairo (1943) and Potsdam (1949) proclamations restored sovereignty to China.
• The GMD under Chiang Kai-shek established a repressive government in Taiwan.
• Freedom of speech and political opposition were banned, and local people were excluded from positions of power.
• The government introduced land reforms to increase productivity and modernize the economy.
• The death of Chiang Kai-shek in 1975 marked the beginning of Taiwan's transformation into a democracy.
• Martial law was lifted in 1987, and free elections brought local Taiwanese to power.
• The issue of reunification with China remains contentious, with a semi-autonomous Taiwan potentially being acceptable to China.

The Story of Korea

Beginnings of Modernisation

• During the late 19th century, Korea's Joseon Dynasty encountered internal challenges and external pressures from China, Japan, and Western powers. In response, efforts were made to modernise various aspects of the country, including governance, diplomacy, infrastructure, and society.
• However, in 1910, Japan formally annexed Korea, bringing an end to the Joseon Dynasty, which had ruled for over 500 years. Despite this, Koreans continued to resist Japanese cultural suppression and fought for independence through protests, establishing provisional governments, and seeking support at international conferences.
• Japanese colonial rule persisted until 1945, following World War II, with significant contributions from independence activists. In the aftermath, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel, with the northern part under Soviet control and the southern part under U.N. administration. This division eventually led to the formation of separate governments in 1948.

A Post-War Nation

• The Korean War, which lasted from 1950 to 1953, resulted in substantial human and economic losses, further entrenching the division of Korea. In the early years, South Korea's economy was heavily dependent on U.S. aid, as the industrial infrastructure had been largely devastated during the war.
• The post-war period in South Korea was marked by political turmoil. President Syngman Rhee faced growing opposition and was eventually ousted following the April Revolution in 1960. This period of instability set the stage for a military coup led by General Park Chung-hee in 1961, which would significantly alter the country’s political landscape.

Rapid Industrialisation under Strong Leadership

• General Park Chung-hee, who became president in 1963, implemented a series of state-led, export-oriented economic policies aimed at transforming South Korea's economy. Initially, the focus was on labour-intensive industries such as textiles. However, the strategy evolved to emphasize heavy industries, including steel, electronics, and shipbuilding, which became the backbone of South Korea's industrial sector.
• The Saemaul Movement, initiated during this period, aimed to modernise rural areas and enhance living standards, contributing to the overall economic development of the country. South Korea's remarkable economic growth during this period was driven by a combination of factors, including a well-educated workforce, foreign investments, and government incentives.
• Despite these advancements, Park's rule was characterised by authoritarian measures, particularly under the Yusin Constitution, which suspended democratic processes and led to political instability. His presidency came to an abrupt end when he was assassinated in 1979, marking a significant turning point in South Korea's history.

Continued Economic Growth and Calls for Democratisation

Chun Doo-hwan's military coup in 1979 suppressed democratic movements, including the Gwangju Democratisation Movement.

• Economic Growth and Urbanization: Despite the suppression, Chun's regime saw economic growth, which led to improved urbanization and education. This, in turn, fueled demands for democratic reforms.
• June Democracy Movement: The growing discontent and desire for democracy culminated in the June Democracy Movement of 1987. This movement was pivotal in bringing about constitutional amendments that allowed for direct presidential elections in South Korea.

Korean Democracy and the IMF Crisis

• 1987 Elections: The direct elections in 1987 resulted in the election of Roh Tae-woo, a former military leader. This period marked the beginning of a steady progression towards democracy in South Korea.
• End of Military Rule: In 1992, Kim Young-sam, a civilian, was elected president, officially marking the end of military rule in South Korea.
• Economic Policies: The governments during this period focused on promoting export-driven industries and enhancing international competitiveness, which contributed to South Korea's economic growth.
• 1997 Asian Financial Crisis: The crisis led to International Monetary Fund (IMF) support for South Korea. It also spurred citizen-driven initiatives such as the Gold Collection Movement, where citizens contributed gold to support the economy.
• Kim Dae-jung's Presidency: Kim Dae-jung's election in 1997 represented a peaceful transfer of power and a continuation of democratic progress in the country.
• Candlelight Protests of 2016: These protests showcased mature civic engagement in South Korea. They played a crucial role in the impeachment of President Park Geun-hye. Following her impeachment, Moon Jae-in was elected president in 2017, further solidifying democratic governance in the country.

Two Roads to Modernisation

• Japan: Japan managed to retain its independence during the period of Western imperialism. It modernised by blending traditional practices with new technologies and ideas. This process was accompanied by a surge in nationalism, which eventually led Japan to pursue colonial ambitions abroad and to impose internal repression within its borders.
• China: China, on the other hand, faced significant challenges from imperialist powers and suffered from internal instability. In response, it transitioned from traditional governance to a centralised state under Communist rule. While economic reforms under the Communist regime have spurred impressive growth, the country continues to grapple with issues of inequality and the resurgence of traditional practices amidst modernisation.