CAT Previous Year Questions 2024: Reading Comprehension | Verbal Ability & Reading Comprehension (VARC) PDF Download

Passage - 1

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
Landing in Australia, the British colonists weren't much impressed with the small-bodied, slender-snooted marsupials called bandicoots. "Their muzzle, which is much too long, gives them an air exceedingly stupid," one naturalist noted in 1805. They nicknamed one type the "zebra rat" because of its black-striped rump.
Silly-looking or not, though, the zebra rat—the smallest bandicoot, more commonly known today as the western barred bandicoot—exhibited a genius for survival in the harsh outback, where its ancestors had persisted for some 26 million years. Its births were triggered by rainfall in the bone-dry desert. It carried its breath-mint-size babies in a backward-facing pouch so mothers could forage for food and dig shallow, camouflaged shelters.
Still, these adaptations did not prepare the western barred bandicoot for the colonial-era transformation of its ecosystem, particularly the onslaught of imported British animals, from cattle and rabbits that damaged delicate desert vegetation to ravenous house cats that soon developed a taste for bandicoots. Several of the dozen-odd bandicoot species went extinct, and by the 1940s the western barred bandicoot, whose original range stretched across much of the continent, persisted only on two predator-free islands in Shark Bay, off Australia's western coast.
"Our isolated fauna had simply not been exposed to these predators," says Reece Pedler, an ecologist with the Wild Deserts conservation program.
Now Wild Deserts is using descendants of those few thousand island survivors, called Shark Bay bandicoots, in a new effort to seed a mainland bandicoot revival. They've imported 20 bandicoots to a preserve on the edge of the Strzelecki Desert, in the remote interior of New South Wales. This sanctuary is a challenging place, desolate much of the year, with one of the world's most mercurial rainfall patterns—relentless droughts followed by sudden drenching floods.
The imported bandicoots occupy two fenced "exclosures," cleared of invasive rabbits (courtesy of Pedler's sheepdog) and of feral cats (which slunk off once the rabbits disappeared). A third fenced area contains the program's Wild Training Zone, where two other rare marsupials (bilbies, a larger type of bandicoot, and mulgaras, a somewhat fearsome fuzzball known for sucking the brains out of prey) currently share terrain with controlled numbers of cats, learning to evade them. It's unclear whether the Shark Bay bandicoots, which are perhaps even more predator-naive than their now-extinct mainland bandicoot kin, will be able to make that kind of breakthrough.
For now, though, a recent surge of rainfall has led to a bandicoot joey boom, raising the Wild Deserts population to about 100, with other sanctuaries adding to that number. There are also signs of rebirth in the landscape itself. With their constant digging, the bandicoots trap moisture and allow for seed germination so the cattle-damaged desert can restore itself.
They have a new nickname—a flattering one, this time. "We call them ecosystem engineers," Pedler says.

Q1: According to the text, the western barred bandicoots now have a flattering name because they have 
(a) grown fivefold in terms of population.
(b) led a revival in preserving the species.
(c) aided in altering an arid environment.
(d) led to a surge and increase of rainfall.

Ans: c

Sol: The western barred bandicoots have earned a new nickname due to their constant digging aiding the desert restore itself: “With their constant digging, the bandicoots trap moisture and allow for seed germination so the cattle-damaged desert can restore itself. They have a new nickname—a flattering one, this time.” So, option 3 is the correct choice.

Q2: Which one of the following options does NOT represent the characteristics of the western barred bandicoot? 
(a) Look of a rat but with a baby pouch and a slender snout
(b) Shallow diggers having an elongated muzzle
(c) Long thin nose, black striped back, pouch for joeys
(d) Smallest black striped marsupial that uses camouflage and dig

Ans: d

Sol: Tricky question. Note the terms/phrases used to describe the western barred bandicoot: 'small-bodied', 'slender-snooted', 'muzzle, which is much too long', 'black-striped rump', 'the smallest bandicoot', 'breath-mint-size babies', 'backward-facing pouch', 'mothers..forage for food and dig shallow, camouflaged shelters'.
 Options 1, 2 and 3 are all true based on the given description. Option 4, on the other hand, says the western barred bandicoot 'uses camouflage' and digs. This is not what the passage says. The passage says the western barred bandicoot digs camouflaged shelters, not that it uses camouflage and digs. So, option 4 does not represent the characteristics of the western barred bandicoot.

Q3: The text uses the word 'exclosures' because Wild Deserts has adopted a measure of 
(a) restoring cattle damaged deserts to green landscapes.
(b) excluding animals to make the islands predator-free.
(c) ridding the main desert of feral cats and large bilbies.
(d) barring the entry of invasive species.

Ans: d

Sol: The text uses the word 'exclosures' because Wild Deserts has adopted a measure of restoring cattle damaged deserts to green landscapes. excluding animals to make the islands predator-free. ridding the main desert of feral cats and large bilbies. barring the entry of invasive species.

Q4: Which one of the following statements provides a gist of this passage? 
(a) The negligent attitude of the British colonists towards these bandicoots evidenced by the names given to them led to their annihilation.
(b) A type of bandicoots was nearly wiped out by invasive species but rescuers now pin hopes on a remnant island population.
(c) Marsupials are going extinct due to the colonial era transformation of the ecosystem which also destroyed natural vegetation.
(d) The onslaught of animals, such as cattle, rabbits and housecats, brought in by the British led to the extinction of the western barred bandicoot.

Ans: b

Sol: The passage describes how the colonial-era transformation of the ecosystem led to the dwindling of the western barred bandicoot and the effort by Wild Deserts to seed a mainland bandicoot revival. Option 2 is a good summary of what the passage is about. None of the other options talk about the revival effort, so they are easily ruled out.

Passage - 2

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
Oftentimes, when economists cross borders, they are less interested in learning from others than in invading their garden plots. Gary Becker, for instance, pioneered the idea of human capital. To do so, he famously tackled topics like crime and domesticity, applying methods honed in the study of markets to domains of nonmarket life. He projected economics outward into new realms: for example, by revealing the extent to which humans calculate marginal utilities when choosing their spouses or stealing from neighbors. At the same time, he did not let other ways of thinking enter his own economic realm: for example, he did not borrow from anthropology or history or let observations of nonmarket economics inform his homo economicus. Becker was a picture of the imperial economist in the heyday of the discipline's bravura.
Times have changed for the once almighty discipline. Economics has been taken to task, within and beyond its ramparts. Some economists have reached out, imported, borrowed, and collaborated—been less imperial, more open. Consider Thomas Piketty and his outreach to historians. The booming field of behavioral economics—the fusion of economics and social psychology—is another case. Having spawned active subfields, like judgment, decision-making and a turn to experimentation, the field aims to go beyond the caricature of Rational Man to explain how humans make decisions….
It is important to underscore how this flips the way we think about economics. For generations, economists have presumed that people have interests—"preferences," in the neoclassical argot—that get revealed in the course of peoples' choices. Interests come before actions and determine them. If you are hungry, you buy lunch; if you are cold, you get a sweater. If you only have so much money and can't afford to deal with both your growling stomach and your shivering, which need you choose to meet using your scarce savings reveals your preference.
Psychologists take one look at this simple formulation and shake their heads. Increasingly, even some mainstream economists have to admit that homo economicus doesn't always behave like the textbook maximizer; irrational behavior can't simply be waved away as extra-economic expressions of passions over interests, and thus the domain of other disciplines…. This is one place where the humanist can help the economist. If narrative economics is going to help us understand how rivals duke it out, who wins and who loses, we are going to need much more than lessons from epidemiological studies of viruses or intracranial stimuli.
Above all, we need politics and institutions. Shiller [the Nobel prize winning economist] connects perceptions of narratives to changes in behavior and thence to social outcomes. He completes a circle that was key to behavioral economics and brings in storytelling to make sense of how perceptions get framed. This cycle (perception to behavior to society) was once mediated or dominated by institutions: the political parties, lobby groups, and media organizations that played a vital role in legitimating, representing, and excluding interests. Yet institutions have been stripped from Shiller's account, to reveal a bare dynamic of emotions and economics, without the intermediating place of politics.

Q1: In the first paragraph the author is making the point that economists like Becker 
(a) tended to guard their discipline from poaching by academics from other subject areas.
(b) benefitted from the application of their principles and concepts to non-economic phenomena.
(c) used economics to analyse non-market behaviour, without incorporating perspectives from other areas of inquiry.
(d) had begun to borrow concepts from other disciplines but were averse to the latter applying economic principles.

Ans: c

Sol: Of Becker, the passage says that he “projected economics outward into new realms: for example, by revealing the extent to which humans calculate marginal utilities when choosing their spouses or stealing from neighbors. At the same time, he did not let other ways of thinking enter his own economic realm: for example, he did not borrow from anthropology or history or let observations of nonmarket economics inform his homo economicus." Option 3 is the correct choice.

Q2: "Times have changed for the once almighty discipline." We can infer from this statement and the associated paragraph that the author is being 
(a) disparaging of economists' inability to precisely predict market behaviour, and are now borrowing from other disciplines to remedy this.
(b) sarcastic about how economists, who earlier shunned other disciplines, are now beginning to incorporate them in their analyses.
(c) critical of economists' openly borrowing and collaborating across disciplines to explain how humans make decisions.
(d) judgemental about the ability of economic tools to accurately manage crises leading to the downfall of this lofty science.

Ans: b

Sol: In the first paragraph, the author talks of 'imperial' economists 'invading' nonmarket realms while not letting in other ways of thinking enter their own field. Then he remarks that times have changed for 'the once almighty' discipline'. Clearly, the author is being sarcastic while explaining how economists have, with time, been forced to incorporate other disciplines in their analyses. Option 2 is the correct choice.
 Option 1 is easily ruled out; the author is not being disparaging of economists’ inability to precisely predict market behaviour. Option 3 is the exact opposite of the author's stand. Option 4 is not related to the author's point.

Q3: The author critiques Schiller's approach to behavioural economics for 
(a) relying excessively on storytelling as the main influence on the formation of perceptions.
(b) denigrating the role of institutions while creating a link between behavioural economics and perceptions.
(c) linking emotions and rational behaviour without considering the mediation of social institutions.
(d) ignoring the marginal role that media and politics play in influencing people's behaviour.

Ans: c

Sol: Refer to the last paragraph: “This cycle (perception to behavior to society) was once mediated or dominated by institutions: the political parties, lobby groups, and media organizations that played a vital role in legitimating, representing, and excluding interests. Yet institutions have been stripped from Shiller’s account, to reveal a bare dynamic of emotions and economics, without the intermediating place of politics.” In other words, Schiller’s approach to behavioural economics does not take the mediation of social institutions into account while connecting perceptions of narratives to changes in behavior and thereon to social outcomes. Option 3 is the correct choice.
 Options 1 and 4 are easily eliminated, as neither relates to what the author says about Shiller. Option 2 is incorrect as, according to the passage, Shiller does not denigrate or belittle the role of institutions; he does not even consider their role.

Q4: We can infer from the passage that the term ''homo economicus" refers to someone who 
(a) makes rational decisions based on their own preferences.
(b) is not influenced by the preferences and choices of others.
(c) maximises their opportunities based on nonmarket choices.
(d) believes in borrowing and collaborating with other disciplines in their work.

Ans: a

Sol: Refer to the context in which the passage mentions homo economicus: "For generations, economists have presumed that people have interests—“preferences,” in the neoclassical argot—that get revealed in the course of peoples’ choices. Interests come before actions and determine them. If you are hungry, you buy lunch; if you are cold, you get a sweater. If you only have so much money and can’t afford to deal with both your growling stomach and your shivering, which need you choose to meet using your scarce savings reveals your preference. Psychologists take one look at this simple formulation and shake their heads. Increasingly, even some mainstream economists have to admit that homo economicus doesn’t always behave like the textbook maximizer..." In other words, homo economicus refers to someone who is rational and makes decisions based on their own preferences.

Passage - 3

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
In the summer of 2022, subscribers to the US streaming service HBO MAX were alarmed to discover that dozens of the platform's offerings – from the Covid-themed heist thriller Locked Down to the recent remake of The Witches – had been quietly removed from the service . . . The news seemed like vindication to those who had long warned that streaming was more about controlling access to the cultural commons than expanding it, as did reports (since denied by the show's creators) that Netflix had begun editing old episodes of Stranger Things to retroactively improve their visual effects.
What's less clear is whether the commonly prescribed cure for these cultural ills – a return to the material pleasures of physical media – is the right one. While the makers of Blu-ray discs claim they have a shelf life of 100 years, such statistics remain largely theoretical until they come to pass, and are dependent on storage conditions, not to mention the continued availability of playback equipment. The humble DVD has already proved far less resilient, with many early releases already beginning to deteriorate in quality Digital movie purchases provide even less security. Any film "bought" on iTunes could disappear if you move to another territory with a different rights agreement and try to redownload it. It's a bold new frontier in the commodification of art: the birth of the product recall. After a man took to Twitter to bemoan losing access to Cars 2 after moving from Canada to Australia, Apple clarified that users who downloaded films to their devices would retain permanent access to those downloads, even if they relocated to a hemisphere where the [content was] subject to a different set of rights agreements. Thanks to the company's ironclad digital rights management technology, however, such files cannot be moved or backed up, locking you into watching with your Apple account.
Anyone who does manage to acquire Digital Rights Management free (DRM-free) copies of their favourite films must nonetheless grapple with ever-changing file format standards, not to mention data decay – the gradual process by which electronic information slowly but surely corrupts. Only the regular migration of files from hard drive to hard drive can delay the inevitable, in a sisyphean battle against the ravages of digital time.
In a sense, none of this is new. Charlie Chaplin burned the negative of his 1926 film A Woman of the Sea as a tax write-off. Many more films have been lost through accident, negligence or plain indifference. During a heatwave in July 1937, a Fox film vault in New Jersey burned down, destroying a majority of the silent films produced by the studio.
Back then, at least, cinema was defined by its ephemerality: the sense that a film was as good as gone once it left your local cinema. Today, with film studios keen to stress the breadth of their back catalogues (or to put in Hollywood terms, the value of their IPs), audiences may start to wonder why those same studios seem happy to set the vault alight themselves if it'll help next quarter's numbers.

Q1: Which of the following statements is suggested by the sentence "Back then, at least, cinema was defined by its ephemerality: the sense that a film was as good as gone once it left your local cinema"? 
(a) Today, films are expected to be available for a long time, since they are no longer tied solely to their stay at the local cinema.
(b) Cinema is now no longer as ephemeral as it used to be earlier, because the technology used for creating and preserving films has improved manifold.
(c) Presently, there is no reason why film studios should remove access to films once they have left the local cinema.
(d) Around a century ago, people were more accepting of not having access to films once they left the local cinema.

Ans: a

Sol: Refer to the context in which the given statement is made. The author discusses instances of films lost through accident, negligence or plain indifference in the past and remarks that back then, cinema was thought to be as good as gone when it was no longer playing in the local cinema whereas now film studios are keen to stress the breadth of their back catalogues. What is implied by the given statement is that now, films are expected to be available for a long time, since they are no longer tied solely to their stay at the local cinema.
 There is no mention of the technology used for creating and preserving films in the given context. So, option 2 is ruled out.
 The issue discussed is not related to the deliberate removal of access to films that have left the local cinema. So, options 3 is incorrect.
 Option 4 restates the idea in the given sentence but is not as apt as option 1, as the question asks what the given sentence suggests. “Back then, at least ..." implies the situation is different now. Option 1 expands on this.

Q2: "Netflix had begun editing old episodes of Stranger Things to retroactively improve their visual effects." What is the purpose of this example used in the passage? 
(a) To show a practice that justifies the fears of people who feel streaming services cannot be trusted to be custodians of cultural artefacts like film.
(b) To show how unsubstantiated reports are leading to an increase in the level of distrust towards streaming services.
(c) To show that art in the digital age, specifically film, is no longer sacrosanct, and may be changed to suit changing tastes or technology.
(d) To show that streaming services are controlling access to the cultural commons rather than expanding it.

Ans: a

Sol: The passage is all about preserving digital content against the ravages of time. The author says the news of the removal of content on HBO Max "seemed like vindication to those who had long warned that streaming was more about controlling access to the cultural commons than expanding it, as did reports (since denied by the show’s creators) that Netflix had begun editing old episodes of Stranger Things to retroactively improve their visual effects." The Netflix example relates to a streaming service retroactively editing content. This is given to substantiate the idea that streaming services cannot be expected to be custodians of cultural commons like films and other digital content.
 While option 2 is easily eliminated, the other options seem close.
 Consider option 3. While it is true that the Netflix example shows that art in the digital age is no longer sacrosanct, and may be changed to suit changing tastes or technology, this option does not touch upon the role of streaming services like Netflix and the idea that they are not reliable custodians of past content. Option 1 is better than option 3.
 Option 4, again, seems a strong contender, at the outset. But the Netflix example is not about streaming services controlling access to the cultural commons and not expanding it. It is about streaming services not preserving cultural content in the original state but altering it to suit their interests. Option 4 actually relates to the HBO example, not the Netflix one. So, this option too, is incorrect.

Q3: Which one of the following statements, if true, would best invalidate the main argument of the passage? 
(a) Improved cloud storage services have made it possible for movie collections to now be preserved in perpetuity, without the need to keep migrating the files.
(b) Studios and streaming services have committed to giving customers perpetual and platform-independent access to the original digital content they have paid for.
(c) Recent research has irrefutably proven that Blu-Ray discs have a shelf life of at least 100 years.
(d) When moving to a different geographical location, customers can easily use Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) to bypass geo-blocking and regain access to their content on any streaming service.

Ans: b

Sol: The passage argues that preserving cultural artefacts such as film against the ravages of time is a sisyphean battle. Customers struggle to retain access to content they pay for, as they cannot rely on streaming providers to be custodians of the content. Nor is the use of physical media or acquiring digital rights a good solution due to complications posed by technological advancements, changing file formats, data decay and so on.
 If option 2 were true, that is, studios and streaming services have committed to giving customers perpetual and platform-independent access to the original digital content they have paid for, then the central argument of the passage would be invalidated. So, option 2 is the correct choice.
Option 1, if true, would be a solution to one problem discussed in the passage, that is, perpetual access to content paid for, but it does not address the other issues, such as access to original content being tied to the platform and to the location of access. Similarly, the other options, too, narrowly address one aspect of the problem whereas option 2 is broader and so it is the right choice.

Q4: Which one of the following statements about art best captures the arguments made in the passage? 
(a) Works of art belong to the cultural commons and hence must remain available in perpetuity, irrespective of who pays for access to them.
(b) In the age of online subscription services, it is time to change our understanding of classic works of art being primarily immutable and easily available to the public.
(c) As art is increasingly created, stored and distributed digitally, access to it is counterintuitively likely to be made more difficult by the rapid churn in technology and the whims of host platforms.
(d) Accepting retroactive changes to works of art is dangerous because it will encourage creators to not put enough effort into the original attempt, given that they can always edit or update their work later.

Ans: c

Sol: With regard to art, key ideas mentioned in the passage include that of cultural commons, the commodification of art with advancement in technology and the difficulty in preserving access to it over time. Option C, which touches upon the problem of technology-driven complications in access to art, best captures the essence of these arguments.
 Consider option 1. While the author is likely to agree with the view that works of art belong to the cultural commons, there is no argument put forth in the passage that art must be available in perpetuity, irrespective of who pays for access to it. So, this option is ruled out.
 Option 2 overstates the author's point about streaming service providers controlling access to and altering classic works of art. The author does not argue that it is time to change our understanding of classic works of art as being primarily immutable and easily available. Option 2 is hence not a good choice.
 Option 4, too, is incorrect for a similar reason. The Netflix example is given by the author to make a point about streaming service providers not being reliable custodians of work of art, but to say that retroactive changes to works of art is dangerous is overstating the author's arguments.

Passage - 4

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question. 

. . . [T]he idea of craftsmanship is not simply nostalgic. . . . Crafts require distinct skills, an allround approach to work that involves the whole product, rather than individual parts, and an attitude that necessitates devotion to the job and a focus on the communal interest. The concept of craft emphasises the human touch and individual judgment.
Essentially, the crafts concept seems to run against the preponderant ethos of management studies which, as the academics note, have long prioritised efficiency and consistency. . . . Craft skills were portrayed as being primitive and traditionalist.
The contrast between artisanship and efficiency first came to the fore in the 19th century when British manufacturers suddenly faced competition from across the Atlantic as firms developed the "American system" using standardised parts. . . the worldwide success of the Singer sewing machine showed the potential of a mass-produced device. This process created its own reaction, first in the form of the Arts and Crafts movement of the late 19 th century, and then again in the "small is beautiful" movement of the 1970s. A third crafts movement is emerging as people become aware of the environmental impact of conventional industry.
There are two potential markets for those who practise crafts. The first stems from the existence of consumers who are willing to pay a premium price for goods that are deemed to be of extra quality. . . . The second market lies in those consumers who wish to use their purchases to support local workers, or to reduce their environmental impact by taking goods to craftspeople to be mended, or recycled.
For workers, the appeal of craftsmanship is that it allows them the autonomy to make creative choices, and thus makes a job far more satisfying. In that sense, it could offer hope for the overall labour market. Let the machines automate dull and repetitive tasks and let workers focus purely on their skills, judgment and imagination. As a current example, the academics cite the "agile" manifesto in the software sector, an industry at the heart of technological change. The pioneers behind the original agile manifesto promised to prioritise "individuals and interactions over processes and tools". By bringing together experts from different teams, agile working is designed to improve creativity.
But the broader question is whether crafts can create a lot more jobs than they do today. Demand for crafted products may rise but will it be easy to retrain workers in sectors that might get automated (such as truck drivers) to take advantage? In a world where products and services often have to pass through regulatory hoops, large companies will usually have the advantage.
History also suggests that the link between crafts and creativity is not automatic. Medieval craft guilds were monopolies which resisted new entrants. They were also highly hierarchical with young men required to spend long periods as apprentices and journeymen before they could set up on their own; by that time the innovative spirit may have been knocked out of them. Craft workers can thrive in the modern era, but only if they don't get too organised.

 Q1: We can infer from the passage that medieval crafts guilds resembled mass production in that both 
(a) discouraged innovation by restricting entry through strict rules.
(b) did not always employ egalitarian production processes.
(c) did not necessarily promote creativity.
(d) focused excessively on product quality.

Ans: c

Sol: The correct answer is 1: did not necessarily promote creativity.

The passage notes that both mass production and medieval crafts guilds stifled creativity:

• "The link between crafts and creativity is not automatic. Medieval craft guilds … resisted new entrants."
• Mass production also limits creativity due to its focus on standardization and efficiency.

Option C captures this similarity. Option B, though true of medieval guilds, is not discussed in relation to mass production. Option D inaccurately suggests excessive focus on product quality, and Option C conflates guild rules with innovation restrictions, which were a by-product, not a primary feature.

 Q2: Which one of the following statements is NOT inconsistent with the views stated in the passage? 
(a) We need to support the crafts; only then can we retain the creativity intrinsic to their production.
(b) The Arts and Crafts movement was initially inspired by the "American system" of production.
(c) Creativity in the crafts could be stifled if the market for artisan goods becomes too organised.
(d) The agile movement in software is a throwback to the tenets of the medieval crafts guilds.

Ans: c

Sol: The correct answer is C: Creativity in the crafts could be stifled if the market for artisan goods becomes too organized.

The author warns against excessive organization in the crafts sector:

“Craft workers can thrive in the modern era, but only if they don’t get too organised.”

Option C is consistent with this view. Option A implies unconditional support for crafts, which the author does not advocate.Option B misinterprets the inspiration behind the Arts and Crafts movement, which was a reaction to mass production, not an adoption of its principles.
Option D incorrectly equates the agile movement with medieval guilds, which were hierarchical and resistant to innovation.

 Q3: The author questions the ability of crafts to create substantial employment opportunities presently because 
(a) the low scale of crafts production will not be able to absorb the mass of redundant labour.
(b) regulatory requirements could make it difficult for small crafts outfits to compete.
(c) workers made redundant by automation are unlikely to opt for crafts-related work.
(d) crafts guilds tend to resist new entrants and are unlikely to accept large numbers of trainees.

Ans: b

Sol: The author raises concerns about whether crafts can create substantial employment, highlighting two challenges:

Retraining workers in automated sectors like trucking: "Will it be easy to retrain workers in sectors that might get automated (such as truck drivers) to take advantage?"
Regulatory barriers favoring large companies: "In a world where products and services often have to pass through regulatory hoops, large companies will usually have the advantage."
Option B addresses this latter issue, directly reflecting the passage. Options A and C are plausible concerns but are not explicitly supported as major barriers, while Option D refers to medieval guilds, which are historical examples, not contemporary concerns.

Q4: The most recent revival in interest in the crafts is a result of the emergence of all of the following EXCEPT: 
(a) concerns about the environmental impact of mass production.
(b) a niche market for discerning buyers of quality products.
(c) support for individual creations as opposed to mass-produced objects.
(d) a greater interest in buying locally produced goods.

Ans: c

Sol: The correct answer is C: support for individual creations as opposed to mass-produced objects.

The passage discusses three main reasons for the revival of interest in crafts:

• Environmental concerns: "A third crafts movement is emerging as people become aware of the environmental impact of conventional industry."
• Niche markets for quality goods: "Consumers who are willing to pay a premium price for goods that are deemed to be of extra quality."
• Support for local goods: "Consumers who wish to use their purchases to support local workers or to reduce their environmental impact."

The passage does not mention support for individual creations as a direct factor driving the revival. While the human touch and creativity are emphasized, these are framed as appeals of craftsmanship rather than reasons for its resurgence.

Passage - 5

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
The job of a peer reviewer is thankless. Collectively, academics spend around 70 million hours every year evaluating each other's manuscripts on the behalf of scholarly journals — and they usually receive no monetary compensation and little if any recognition for their effort. Some do it as a way to keep abreast with developments in their field; some simply see it as a duty to the discipline. Either way, academic publishing would likely crumble without them.
In recent years, some scientists have begun posting their reviews online, mainly to claim credit for their work. Sites like Publons allow researchers to either share entire referee reports or simply list the journals for whom they've carried out a review….
The rise of Publons suggests that academics are increasingly placing value on the work of peer review and asking others, such as grant funders, to do the same. While that's vital in the publish-or-perish culture of academia, there's also immense value in the data underlying peer review. Sharing peer review data could help journals stamp out fraud, inefficiency, and systemic bias in academic publishing.….
Peer review data could also help root out bias. Last year, a study based on peer review data for nearly 24,000 submissions to the biomedical journal eLife found that women and non-Westerners were vastly underrepresented among peer reviewers. Only around one in every five reviewers was female, and less than two percent of reviewers were based in developing countries…. Openly publishing peer review data could perhaps also help journals address another problem in academic publishing: fraudulent peer reviews. For instance, a minority of authors have been known to use phony email addresses to pose as an outside expert and review their own manuscripts.…
Opponents of open peer review commonly argue that confidentiality is vital to the integrity of the review process; referees may be less critical of manuscripts if their reports are published, especially if they are revealing their identities by signing them. Some also hold concerns that open reviewing may deter referees from agreeing to judge manuscripts in the first place, or that they'll take longer to do so out of fear of scrutiny….
Even when the content of reviews and the identity of reviewers can't be shared publicly, perhaps journals could share the data with outside researchers for study. Or they could release other figures that wouldn't compromise the anonymity of reviews but that might answer important questions about how long the reviewing process takes, how many researchers editors have to reach out to on average to find one who will carry out the work, and the geographic distribution of peer reviewers.
Of course, opening up data underlying the reviewing process will not fix peer review entirely, and there may be instances in which there are valid reasons to keep the content of peer reviews hidden and the identity of the referees confidential. But the norm should shift from opacity in all cases to opacity only when necessary.

Q1: Based on the passage we can infer that the author would most probably support 
(a) publicising peer review data rather than the publication of actual reviews.
(b) preserving the anonymity of reviewers to protect them from criticism.
(c) more careful screening to ensure the recruitment of content-familiar peer reviewers.
(d) greater transparency across the peer review process in academic publishing.

Ans: d

Sol: 

• Based on the passage we can infer that the author would most probably support publicising peer review data rather than the publication of actual reviews.
• preserving the anonymity of reviewers to protect them from criticism.
• more careful screening to ensure the recruitment of content-familiar peer reviewers.
• greater transparency across the peer review process in academic publishing.

Q2: According to the passage, which of the following is the only reason NOT given in favour of making peer review data public? 
(a) It can tackle the problem of selecting appropriately qualified reviewers for academic writing.
(b) It would highlight the gender and race biases currently existing in the selection of reviewers.
(c) It will deal with peer review fraud such as authors publishing bogus reviews of their work.
(d) It could address various inefficiencies and fraudulent practices that continue in academic publishing process.

Ans: a

Sol: The author states, "Sharing peer review data could help journals stamp out fraud, inefficiency, and systemic bias in academic publishing" and goes on to elaborate on each of these points in the passage. Options 2, 3 and 4 relate to these points. The author, however, does not say that the problem of selecting appropriately qualified reviewers for academic writing can be solved by making peer review data public. So, option 1 is the correct answer choice.

Q3: According to the passage, some are opposed to making peer reviews public for all the following reasons EXCEPT that it 
(a) delays the manuscript evaluation process as reviewers would take longer to write their reviews.
(b) makes reviewers reluctant to review manuscripts, especially if these are critical of the submitted work.
(c) leaves the reviewers unexposed to unwarranted and unjustified criticism or comments from others.
(d) deters reviewers from producing honest, if critical, reviews that are vital to the sound publishing process.

Ans: c

Sol: Refer to the lines, "Opponents of open peer review commonly argue that confidentiality is vital to the integrity of the review process; referees may be less critical of manuscripts if their reports are published, especially if they are revealing their identities by signing them. Some also hold concerns that open reviewing may deter referees from agreeing to judge manuscripts in the first place, or that they’ll take longer to do so out of fear of scrutiny..."
 So, delays in the manuscript evaluation process (option 1), reviewers becoming reluctant to publish critical reviews (option 2) and reviewers producing less critical reviews (option 4) are mentioned in the passage.
 Option 3 says making peer reviews public could leave reviewers unexposed to unwarranted and unjustified criticism. This is clearly incorrect.

Q4: All of the following are listed as reasons why academics choose to review other scholars' work EXCEPT: 
(a) It is seen as a form of service to the academic community.
(b) It helps them keep current with cutting-edge ideas in their academic disciplines.
(c) It is seen as an opportunity to expand their influence in the academic community.
(d) Some use this as an opportunity to publicise their own review work.

Ans: c

Sol: Options 1, 2 and 4 relate to reasons mentioned in the passage. Refer to the lines, "Some do it as a way to keep abreast with developments in their field; some simply see it as a duty to the discipline...In recent years, some scientists have begun posting their reviews online, mainly to claim credit for their work". Only option 3 is not mentioned in the passage.

Passage - 6

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
[S]pices were a global commodity centuries before European voyages. There was a complex chain of relations, yet consumers had little knowledge of producers and vice versa. Desire for spices helped fuel European colonial empires to create political, military and commercial networks under a single power.
Historians know a fair amount about the supply of spices in Europe during the medieval period – the origins, methods of transportation, the prices – but less about demand. Why go to such extraordinary efforts to procure expensive products from exotic lands? Still, demand was great enough to inspire the voyages of Christopher Columbus and Vasco Da Gama, launching the first fateful wave of European colonialism. . . .
So, why were spices so highly prized in Europe in the centuries from about 1000 to 1500? One widely disseminated explanation for medieval demand for spices was that they covered the taste of spoiled meat. . . . Medieval purchasers consumed meat much fresher than what the average city-dweller in the developed world of today has at hand. However, refrigeration was not available, and some hot spices have been shown to serve as an anti-bacterial agent. Salting, smoking or drying meat were other means of preservation. Most spices used in cooking began as medical ingredients, and throughout the Middle Ages spices were used as both medicines and condiments. Above all, medieval recipes involve the combination of medical and culinary lore in order to balance food's humeral properties and prevent disease. Most spices were hot and dry and so appropriate in sauces to counteract the moist and wet properties supposedly possessed by most meat and fish. . . .
Where spices came from was known in a vague sense centuries before the voyages of Columbus. Just how vague may be judged by looking at medieval world maps . . . To the medieval European imagination, the East was exotic and alluring. Medieval maps often placed India close to the so-called Earthly Paradise, the Garden of Eden described in the Bible.
Geographical knowledge has a lot to do with the perceptions of spices' relative scarcity and the reasons for their high prices. An example of the varying notions of scarcity is the conflicting information about how pepper is harvested. As far back as the 7th century Europeans thought that pepper in India grew on trees "guarded" by serpents that would bite and poison anyone who attempted to gather the fruit. The only way to harvest pepper was to burn the trees, which would drive the snakes underground. Of course, this bit of lore would explain the shriveled black peppercorns, but not white, pink or other colors.
Spices never had the enduring allure or power of gold and silver or the commercial potential of new products such as tobacco, indigo or sugar. But the taste for spices did continue for a while beyond the Middle Ages. As late as the 17th century, the English and the Dutch were struggling for control of the Spice Islands: Dutch New Amsterdam, or New York, was exchanged by the British for one of the Moluccan Islands where nutmeg was grown.

Q1: In the context of the passage, which one of the following conclusions CANNOT be reached? 
(a) India was colonised for its spices and gold.
(b) Tobacco was more marketable than spices.
(c) The spice trade was a driver of colonial expansion.
(d) Colonialism was motivated by the demand for spices.

Ans: a

Sol: The passage mentioned India twice: once, to say that medieval maps often placed India close to the so-called Earthly Paradise and the second time to say that the 7th century Europeans thought that pepper in India grew on trees guarded by serpents. So, the conclusion that India was colonised for its spices and gold cannot be reached from the passage.
 Option 2 is true: "Spices never had the enduring allure or power of gold and silver or the commercial potential of new products such as tobacco, indigo or sugar."
 Options 3 and 4 are true, too: "Desire for spices helped fuel European colonial empires to create political, military and commercial networks under a single power."

Q2: It can be inferred that all of the following contributed to a decline in the allure of spices, EXCEPT: 
(a) changes in European cuisine.
(b) the development of refrigeration techniques.
(c) increase in the availability of spices.
(d) changes in the system of medical treatment.

Ans: c

Sol: In the third paragraph, the passage discusses the reasons why spices were highly prized. They were prized as they covered the taste of spoiled meat, helped preserve meat, had medical uses and were thought to balance food's humeral properties and prevent disease. Options 1 (changes in European cuisine), 2 (refrigeration) and 4 (changes in system of medical treatment) all relate to the points mentioned in the passage.
 On the other hand, though the passage talks about misconceptions that contributed to varying notions of scarcity of spices, it does not say spices were prized because they were in short supply. So, it cannot be inferred that an increase in the availability of spices led to a decline in the allure of spices.

Q3: If a trader brought white peppercorns from India to medieval Europe, all of the following are unlikely to happen, EXCEPT: 
(a) Europeans would doubt the story of pepper harvesting.
(b) the price of spices would decrease.
(c) medieval maps would be used as navigational aids.
(d) pepper would no longer be considered exotic.

Ans: a

Sol: Pointing out the European lore about pepper harvesting, the passage says, "Of course, this bit of lore would explain the shriveled black peppercorns, but not white, pink or other colors."
 So, if a trader brought white peppercorns from India to medieval Europe, Europeans would doubt the story of pepper harvesting.

Q4: In the context of the passage, the people who heard the story of pepper trees being guarded by snakes would be least likely to arrive at the conclusion that 
(a) it is no surprise that the pepper supply is so limited.
(b) it is not advisable to go to India to harvest the pepper themselves.
(c) this is why pepper is so hot.
(d) pepper is costly for good reason.

Ans: c

Sol: According to the passage, the 7th century Europeans thought that serpents guarding pepper trees would poison anyone who attempted to gather the fruit and that the difficulty in harvesting pepper possibly led to its high prices and scarcity. So, options 1, 2 and 4 are in line with what the thinking was. Only option 3 is not a conclusion 7th century Europeans were likely to arrive at.

Passage - 7

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
The history of any major technological or industrial advance is inevitably shadowed by a less predictable history of unintended consequences and secondary effects — what economists sometimes call "externalities." Sometimes those consequences are innocuous ones, or even beneficial. Gutenberg invents the printing press, and literacy rates rise, which causes a significant part of the reading public to require spectacles for the first time, which creates a surge of investment in lens-making across Europe, which leads to the invention of the telescope and the microscope.
Oftentimes the secondary effects seem to belong to an entirely different sphere of society. When Willis Carrier hit upon the idea of air-conditioning, the technology was primarily intended for industrial use: ensuring cool, dry air for factories that required low-humidity environments. But…it touched off one of the largest migrations in the history of the United States, enabling the rise of metropolitan areas like Phoenix and Las Vegas that barely existed when Carrier first started tinkering with the idea in the early 1900s.
Sometimes the unintended consequence comes about when consumers use an invention in a surprising way. Edison famously thought his phonograph, which he sometimes called "the talking machine," would primarily be used to take dictation….But then later innovators… discovered a much larger audience willing to pay for musical recordings made on descendants of Edison's original invention. In other cases, the original innovation comes into the world disguised as a plaything…the way the animatronic dolls of the mid-1700s inspired Jacquard to invent the first "programmable" loom and Charles Babbage to invent the first machine that fit the modern definition of a computer, setting the stage for the revolution in programmable technology that would transform the 21st century in countless ways.
We live under the gathering storm of modern history's most momentous unintended consequence….carbon-based climate change. Imagine the vast sweep of inventors whose ideas started the Industrial Revolution, all the entrepreneurs and scientists and hobbyists who had a hand in bringing it about. Line up a thousand of them and ask them all what they had been hoping to do with their work. Not one would say that their intent had been to deposit enough carbon in the atmosphere to create a greenhouse effect that trapped heat at the surface of the planet. And yet here we are.
Ethyl (leaded fuel) and Freon belonged to the same general class of secondary effect: innovations whose unintended consequences stem from some kind of waste by-product that they emit. But the potential health threats of Ethyl (unleaded fuel) were visible in the 1920s, unlike, say, the long-term effects of atmospheric carbon build up in the early days of the Industrial Revolution….
Indeed, it is reasonable to see CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) as a forerunner of the kind of threat we will most likely face in the coming decades, as it becomes increasingly possible for individuals or small groups to create new scientific advances — through chemistry or biotechnology or materials science — setting off unintended consequences that reverberate on a global scale.

Q1: We can assume that the author would support all of the following views EXCEPT: 
(a) It has become far easier for people today to bring out innovations with dire worldwide consequences than it was earlier.
(b) The emissions caused by the large-scale use of leaded fuel ought to have been addressed earlier than they were.
(c) While technological advances in the past have had innocuous or beneficial outcomes, more recent advances have the potential to be more threatening globally.
(d) The by-products of leaded fuel, rather than the fuel itself, were responsible for the build-up of carbon-related gases in the atmosphere.

Ans: c

Sol: Let us consider the options in order.
 The author is likely to support the view that it has become far easier for people today to bring out innovations with dire worldwide consequences than it was earlier. Refer to the last line: "Indeed, it is reasonable to see CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) as a forerunner of the kind of threat we will most likely face in the coming decades, as it becomes increasingly possible for individuals or small groups to create new scientific advances — through chemistry or biotechnology or materials science — setting off unintended consequences that reverberate on a global scale."
 With regard to the emissions caused by the large-scale use of leaded fuel, the author only states that "the potential health threats of Ethyl (unleaded fuel) were visible in the 1920s…." The author does not categorically state that these emissions ought to have been addressed earlier than they were. But the author is not likely to disagree with this statement either. We can keep this option on hold.
 Moving on to option 3, we see that this option is clearly incorrect. The author does not say technological advances in the past have only had innocuous or beneficial outcomes. The carbon-based climate change that started with the Industrial Revolution is discussed by the author at length. So, option 3 is clearly a statement the author would not agree with.
 Option 4 relates to a stated fact in the passage: "Ethyl (leaded fuel) and Freon belonged to the same general class of secondary effect: innovations whose unintended consequences stem from some kind of waste by-product that they emit." So, this option is ruled out.

Q2: Carrier, Babbage, and Edison are mentioned in the passage to illustrate the author's point that 
(a) these inventors could not have visualised the eventual impact of their inventions on society.
(b) the secondary effect of past inventions mostly resulted in the creation of new inventions.
(c) inventions typically end up being used for entirely different purposes than the intended ones.
(d) despite the original intention, the unintended consequences of their inventions were largely beneficial.

Ans: a

Sol: According to the passage, Carrier intended air-conditioning for industrial use. Edison thought his phonograph would primarily be used to take dictation. Babbage's machine came into the world 'disguised as a plaything'. So, the examples all relate to the author's point that these inventors could not have visualised the eventual impact of their inventions on society.
 Options 2 and 3 over-generalise. The author does not argue that the secondary effect of past inventions "mostly resulted" in the creation of new inventions or that inventions "typically" end up being used for entirely different purposes than the intended.
 Option 4 implies the original intention of the invention was not to be beneficial. This is clearly incorrect.

Q3: Which of the following best conveys the main point of the first paragraph? 
(a) The secondary effects of most major technological advances in the past, especially if they were unintended, have turned out to be beneficial.
(b) The full impact of technological advances cannot be estimated in the short run as the ripple effects often extend far beyond the original intent.
(c) The entire impact of a technological advance should be evaluated by the boost its secondary effects gives to generating further technological advances.
(d) It is important to judge an invention not by its immediate outcomes, but by the holistic impact of its secondary effects.

Ans: b

Sol: The main point of the first paragraph is stated in the first line. Any major technological or industrial advance is followed by unintended consequences and secondary effects which are not very predictable. That is, the full impact of technological advances cannot be estimated in the short run as the ripple effects often extend far beyond the original intent. Option 2 is the correct choice.
 Option 1 is clearly incorrect. The passage does not say the unintended secondary effects of most major technological advances in the past have been beneficial.
 Both options 3 and 4 options are about evaluating the holistic impact of technological advance. This is not an idea mentioned in the first paragraph.

Q4: The author lists all of the following examples as "externalities" of major technical advances EXCEPT: 
(a) extension of the phonograph to large-scale recording of music
(b) build-up of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere
(c) cooling and de-humidifying of factories through air-conditioning
(d) application of the Jacquard loom to modern IT programming

Ans: c

Sol: Externalities are secondary effects of technological advances. All options except 3 relate to secondary effects. Cooling and de-humidifying of factories was the primary intended effect of air-conditioning.

Passage - 8

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
(. . .) There are three other common drivers for carnivore-human attacks, some of which are more preventable than others. Natural aggression-based conflicts – such as those involving females protecting their young or animals protecting a food source – can often be avoided as long as people stay away from those animals and their food.
Carnivores that recognise humans as a means to get food, are a different story. As they become more reliant on human food they might find at campsites or in rubbish bins, they become less avoidant of humans. Losing that instinctive fear response puts them into more situations where they could get into an altercation with a human, which often results in that bear being put down by humans. "A fed bear is a dead bear," says Servheen, referring to a common saying among biologists and conservationists.
Predatory or predation-related attacks are quite rare, only accounting for 17% of attacks in North America since 1955. They occur when a carnivore views a human as prey and hunts it like it would any other animal it uses for food. (. . .)
Then there are animal attacks provoked by people taking pictures with them or feeding them in natural settings such as national parks which often end with animals being euthanised out of precaution. "Eventually, that animal becomes habituated to people, and [then] bad things happen to the animal. And the folks who initially wanted to make that connection don't necessarily realise that," says Christine Wilkinson, a postdoctoral researcher at UC Berkeley, California, who's been studying coyote-human conflicts.
After conducting countless postmortems on all types of carnivore-human attacks spanning 75 years, Penteriani's team believes 50% could have been avoided if humans reacted differently. A 2017 study co-authored by Penteriani found that engaging in risky behaviour around large carnivores increases the likelihood of an attack.
Two of the most common risky behaviours are parents leaving their children to play outside unattended and walking an unleashed dog, according to the study. Wilkinson says 66% of coyote attacks involve a dog. "[People] end up in a situation where their dog is being chased, or their dog chases a coyote, or maybe they're walking their dog near a den that's marked, and the coyote wants to escort them away," says Wilkinson.
Experts believe climate change also plays a part in the escalation of human-carnivore conflicts, but the correlation still needs to be ironed out. "As finite resources become scarcer, carnivores and people are coming into more frequent contact, which means that more conflict could occur," says Jen Miller, international programme specialist for the US Fish & Wildlife Service. For example, she says, there was an uptick in lion attacks in western India during a drought when lions and people were relying on the same water sources.
(. . .) The likelihood of human-carnivore conflicts appears to be higher in areas of low-income countries dominated by vast rural landscapes and farmland, according to Penteriani's research. "There are a lot of working landscapes in the Global South that are really heterogeneous, that are interspersed with carnivore habitats, forests and savannahs, which creates a lot more opportunity for these encounters, just statistically," says Wilkinson.

Q1: According to the passage, which of the following scenarios would MOST likely exacerbate the frequency of carnivore-human conflicts? 
(a) Attempting to photograph wild animals from within secured viewing areas in national parks and protected zones.
(b) Implementing 'food waste' management strategies to prevent wild animals being attracted to human food sources.
(c) Addressing the impact of climate change on the availability of resources for wildlife.
(d) Unleashing dogs by pet owners in areas with known high concentrations of large carnivores.

Ans: d

Sol: Option 4 is the correct answer choice. Refer to the lines, "A 2017 study co-authored by Penteriani found that engaging in risky behaviour around large carnivores increases the likelihood of an attack. Two of the most common risky behaviours are parents leaving their children to play outside unattended and walking an unleashed dog, according to the study."

Q2: According to the passage, what is a significant factor that contributes to the habituation of carnivores to human presence? 
(a) The natural aggression exhibited by carnivores, exacerbated by human interference, particularly when they are safeguarding their offspring or food sources.
(b) The increased scarcity of resources due to climate change, forcing carnivores to venture outside their natural habitats in search of sustenance.
(c) The predatory perception of humans as potential prey within the carnivores' food chain.
(d) The reduction in carnivores' instinctive fear response, resulting from their reliance upon human-provided food.

Ans: d

Sol: Option 4 is the correct choice. Note the lines, "Then there are animal attacks provoked by people taking pictures with them or feeding them in natural settings such as national parks which often end with animals being euthanised out of precaution. “Eventually, that animal becomes habituated to people, and [then] bad things happen to the animal..."

Q3: Which of the following statements, if false, would be inconsistent with the concerns raised in the passage regarding the drivers of carnivore-human conflicts? 
(a) Climate change has had negligible effects on the frequency of carnivore-human interactions in affected regions.
(b) Carnivores lose their instinctive fear of humans, when consistently exposed to human food sources.
(c) Predatory attacks by carnivores are a common occurrence and have steadily increased over the past few decades.
(d) Human efforts to avoid risky behaviours around large carnivores have proven effective in reducing conflict incidents.

Ans: a

Q4: Given the insights provided by Penteriani's research and Wilkinson's statement, which of the following conclusions can be drawn about the relationship between landscape heterogeneity and human-carnivore conflicts? 
(a) Homogeneous landscapes with uniform agricultural practices are more likely to experience high rates of human-carnivore conflicts due to the predictability of resources.
(b) Landscape heterogeneity, characterized by a mix of farmland and natural habitats, inherently reduces the chances of human-carnivore conflicts by providing more refuge for wildlife away from human activity.
(c) The diversity and interspersion of working landscapes with carnivore habitats in rural areas increase the statistical probability of encounters between humans and carnivores.
(d) Low-income countries with vast, contiguous wilderness areas are less prone to human-carnivore conflicts because these areas lack the human presence necessary for such encounters.

Ans: c

Sol: Refer to the last paragraph. Heterogeneous landscapes that are interspersed with carnivore habitats, forests and savannahs create a higher statistical chance of human-carnivore conflicts. Option 3 is the correct choice.

Passage - 9

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
There is a group in the space community who view the solar system not as an opportunity to expand human potential but as a nature preserve, forever the provenance of an elite group of scientists and their sanitary robotic probes. These planetary protection advocates [call] for avoiding "harmful contamination" of celestial bodies. Under this regime, NASA incurs great expense sterilizing robotic probes in order to prevent the contamination of entirely theoretical biospheres. . . .
Transporting bacteria would matter if Mars were the vital world once imagined by astronomers who mistook optical illusions for canals. Nobody wants to expose Martians to measles, but sadly, robotic exploration reveals a bleak, rusted landscape, lacking oxygen and flooded with radiation ready to sterilize any Earthly microbes. Simple life might exist underground, or down at the bottom of a deep canyon, but it has been very hard to find with robots. . . . The upsides from human exploration and development of Mars clearly outweigh the welfare of purely speculative Martian fungi. . . .
The other likely targets of human exploration, development, and settlement, our moon and the asteroids, exist in a desiccated, radiation-soaked realm of hard vacuum and extreme temperature variations that would kill nearly anything. It's also important to note that many international competitors will ignore the demands of these protection extremists in any case. For example, China recently sent a terrarium to the moon and germinated a plant seed—with, unsurprisingly, no protest from its own scientific community. In contrast, when it was recently revealed that a researcher had surreptitiously smuggled super-resilient microscopic tardigrades aboard the ill-fated Israeli Beresheet lunar probe, a firestorm was unleashed within the space community. . . .
NASA's previous human exploration efforts made no serious attempt at sterility, with little notice. As the Mars expert Robert Zubrin noted in the National Review, U.S. lunar landings did not leave the campsites cleaner than they found it. Apollo's bacteria-infested litter included bags of feces. Forcing NASA's proposed Mars exploration to do better, scrubbing everything and hauling out all the trash, would destroy NASA's human exploration budget and encroach on the agency's other directorates, too. Getting future astronauts off Mars is enough of a challenge, without trying to tote weeks of waste along as well.
A reasonable compromise is to continue on the course laid out by the U.S. government and the National Research Council, which proposed a system of zones on Mars, some for science only, some for habitation, and some for resource exploitation. This approach minimizes contamination, maximizes scientific exploration . . . Mars presents a stark choice of diverging human futures. We can turn inward, pursuing ever more limited futures while we await whichever natural or manmade disaster will eradicate our species and life on Earth. Alternatively, we can choose to propel our biosphere further into the solar system, simultaneously protecting our home planet and providing a backup plan for the only life we know exists in the universe. Are the lives on Earth worth less than some hypothetical microbe lurking under Martian rocks?

Q1: The author mentions all of the following reasons to dismiss concerns about contaminating Mars EXCEPT: 
(a) the lack of evidence of living organisms on Mars makes possible contamination from earthly microbes a moot point.
(b) the use of similar probes on astronomical bodies like the moon have had little effect on the environment.
(c) efforts to contain contamination on Mars are likely to be derailed as competitor countries may not follow similar restrictions.
(d) earlier explorations have already contaminated pristine space environments.

Ans: b

Sol: With regard to the moon and asteroids, the author only argues that these are "desiccated, radiation-soaked" realms of "hard vacuum and extreme temperature variations that would kill nearly anything" and that China recently sent a terrarium to the moon and germinated a plant seed. The author does not say that similar probes on the moon have had "little effect" on the environment. So, option 2 does not relate to what the author argues.
 On the other hand, all other options relate to the contents of the passage.
 In the second paragraph, the author argues that life on Mars has been "very hard to find with robots" and that the "upsides from human exploration and development of Mars clearly outweigh the welfare of purely speculative Martian fungi". So, option 1 relates to what is stated in the passage.
 The author gives the example of China to drive home the point that many international competitors will ignore the demands of protection extremists in any case. Option 3 also relates to the contents of the passage.
 The author also argues in the fourth paragraph that NASA’s previous human exploration efforts made no serious attempt at sterility, with little notice. So, option 4 is ruled out.

Q2: The author's overall tone in the first paragraph can be described as 
(a) approving of the amount of money NASA spends to restrict the spread of contamination in space.
(b) sceptical about the excessive efforts to sanitise planets where life has not yet been proven to exist.
(c) indifferent to the elitism of a few scientists aiming to corner space exploration.
(d) equivocal about the reasons extended by the group of scientists seeking to limit space exploration.

Ans: b

Sol: The author’s tone in the first paragraph is clearly sceptical. Note the use of "harmful contamination" in quotes. Further, the author’s description of those who call for planetary protection indicates that this is not the author’s position ("There is a group...", "these planetary protection advocates...", "under this regime..."). So, option 2 is the correct choice.

Q3: The author is unlikely to disagree with any of the following EXCEPT: 
(a) the proposal for a zonal segregation of the Martian landscape into regions for different purposes.
(b) that while NASA's earlier missions were not ideal in their approach to space contamination, they likely did no grave damage.
(c) space contamination should be minimised until the possibility of life on the astronomical body being explored is ruled out.
(d) the exorbitant costs of continuing to keep the space environment pristine may be unsustainable.

Ans: c

Sol: Trickily worded question, but the answer choice is otherwise easy to pick.
 The choice the author is NOT unlikely to disagree with = the choice the author is NOT likely to agree with
 Option 3 is the exact opposite of the author's argument. So, this is the correct answer choice.
 All other options relate to points mentioned in the passage, as seen from the lines given below:
 Option 1 - "A reasonable compromise is to continue on the course laid out by the U.S. government and the National Research Council, which proposed a system of zones on Mars, some for science only, some for habitation, and some for resource exploitation."
 Option 2- "NASA’s previous human exploration efforts made no serious attempt at sterility, with little notice."
 Option 4- "Forcing NASA’s proposed Mars exploration to do better, scrubbing everything and hauling out all the trash, would destroy NASA’s human exploration budget and encroach on the agency’s other directorates, too. Getting future astronauts off Mars is enough of a challenge, without trying to tote weeks of waste along as well."

Q4: The contrasting reactions to the Chinese and Israeli "contaminations" of lunar space 
(a) are evidence of China's reasonable approach towards space contamination.
(b) are valid as the contamination of the lunar environment from animal sources is far greater than from plants.
(c) reveal global biases prevalent in attitudes towards different countries.
(d) indicate that national scientists may have different sensitivities to issues of biosphere protection.

Ans: d

Sol: The author observes that China germinated a plant seed on the moon with "no protest from its own scientific community" whereas the smuggling of tardigrades aboard the Israeli probe unleashed a "firestorm" within the space community. These differing reactions therefore indicate that national scientists may have different sensitivities to issues of biosphere protection. Option 4 is the correct choice.

Passage - 10

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
Languages become endangered and die out for many reasons. Sadly, the physical annihilation of communities of native speakers of a language is all too often the cause of language extinction. In North America, European colonists brought death and destruction to many Native American communities. This was followed by US federal policies restricting the use of indigenous languages, including the removal of native children from their communities to federal boarding schools where native languages and cultural practices were prohibited. As many as 75 percent of the languages spoken in the territories that became the United States have gone extinct, with slightly better language survival rates in Central and South America . . .
Even without physical annihilation and prohibitions against language use, the language of the "dominant" cultures may drive other languages into extinction; young people see education, jobs, culture and technology associated with the dominant language and focus their attention on that language. The largest language "killers" are English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Russian, Hindi, and Chinese, all of which have privileged status as dominant languages threatening minority languages.
When we lose a language, we lose the worldview, culture and knowledge of the people who spoke it, constituting a loss to all humanity. People around the world live in direct contact with their native environment, their habitat. When the language they speak goes extinct, the rest of humanity loses their knowledge of that environment, their wisdom about the relationship between local plants and illness, their philosophical and religious beliefs as well as their native cultural expression (in music, visual art and poetry) that has enriched both the speakers of that language and others who would have encountered that culture. . . .
As educators deeply immersed in the liberal arts, we believe that educating students broadly in all facets of language and culture . . . yields immense rewards. Some individuals educated in the liberal arts tradition will pursue advanced study in linguistics and become actively engaged in language preservation, setting out for the Amazon, for example, with video recording equipment to interview the last surviving elders in a community to record and document a language spoken by no children.
Certainly, though, the vast majority of students will not pursue this kind of activity. For these students, a liberal arts education is absolutely critical from the twin perspectives of language extinction and global citizenship. When students study languages other than their own, they are sensitized to the existence of different cultural perspectives and practices. With such an education, students are more likely to be able to articulate insights into their own cultural biases, be more empathetic to individuals of other cultures, communicate successfully across linguistic and cultural differences, consider and resolve questions in a way that reflects multiple cultural perspectives, and, ultimately extend support to people, programs, practices, and policies that support the preservation of endangered languages.
There is ample evidence that such preservation can work in languages spiraling toward extinction. For example, Navajo, Cree and Inuit communities have established schools in which these languages are the language of instruction and the number of speakers of each has increased.

Q1: The author believes that a liberal arts education combined with participation in language preservation empower students in all of the following ways EXCEPT that they will
(a) develop a better understanding of their own culture.
(b) learn different languages.
(c) establish schools to preserve languages spiralling towards extinction.
(d) overcome cultural barriers to communication.

Ans: c
Sol: Refer to the lines, "When students study languages other than their own, they are sensitized to the existence of different cultural perspectives and practices. With such an education, students are more likely to be able to articulate insights into their own cultural biases, be more empathetic to individuals of other cultures, communicate successfully across linguistic and cultural differences, consider and resolve questions in a way that reflects multiple cultural perspectives, and, ultimately extend support to people, programs, practices, and policies that support the preservation of endangered languages". The author believes that a liberal arts education combined with participation in language preservation empower students to learn different languages, gain a better understanding of their own culture and overcome cultural barriers to communication.

The author does not say liberal arts students are likely to establish schools to preserve endangered languages. So, option 3 is the correct answer choice.

Q2: It can be inferred from the passage that it is likely South America had a slightly better language survival rate than North America for all of the following reasons EXCEPT: 
(a) European colonists allowed children of native speakers to stay at home with their families.
(b) not many native speakers were killed by European colonists.
(c) the colonial government was unable to mainstream the locals.
(d) locals were provided job opportunities in the colonial administration.

Ans: d

Sol: The reasons given in the passage for language extinction in North America are (a) the death and destruction brought by European colonists to many Native American communities, (b) US federal policies restricting the use of indigenous languages and (c) the removal of native children from their communities to federal boarding schools where native languages and cultural practices were prohibited. Options 1 to 3 relate to these aspects.
 Option 4 talks about locals being provided job opportunities in the colonial administration. This is not an idea discussed in the first paragraph. So, option 4 is the correct answer choice.

Q3: Which one of the following hypothetical scenarios, if true, would most strongly undermine the central ideas of the passage? 
(a) A liberal arts education requires that, in addition to being fluent in English, students gain fluency in two of the top five most spoken languages globally.
(b) Schools that teach endangered languages can preserve the language only for a generation.
(c) Recording a dying language that has only a few remaining speakers freezes it in time: it stops evolving further.
(d) Most liberal arts students will pursue jobs in publishing and human resource management rather than doctorates in linguistics.

Ans: a

Sol: The author argues that a liberal arts education is absolutely critical from the twin perspectives of language extinction and global citizenship. If a liberal arts education requires that besides English, students only gain fluency in two of the most spoken languages globally, then the author's argument-- that such an education can help preserve languages spiraling toward extinction-- is undermined. So, option 1 is the correct choice.
 Consider option 2. Even if schools that teach endangered languages can preserve the language only for a generation, they still manage to keep these languages from going extinct immediately. Even if option 2 were true, the author's position would not be undermined.
 Similarly, even if option 3 were true and recording a dying language only manages to freeze it in time, it helps keep the language from going extinct. The author's position would not be undermined.
 Option 4 states that most liberal arts students will pursue jobs in publishing and human resource management rather than doctorates in linguistics. This is something the author himself observes: "Some individuals educated in the liberal arts tradition will pursue advanced study in linguistics and become actively engaged in language preservation...Certainly, though, the vast majority of students will not pursue this kind of activity." Option 4 does not undermine the author's argument.

Q4: In the context of the passage, which one of the following hypothetical scenarios, if true, is NOT an example of the kind of loss that occurs when a language becomes extinct? 
(a) The Inuits of Alaska have 35 different words to describe the texture of snow. When the language becomes extinct, we will lose that understanding of nature.
(b) The Lamkangs of Manipur have only 3 remaining native speakers of the language. When they die, we will lose one more group from the government list of indigenous tribes.
(c) The Andamanese language has a word to describe someone who has lost a step-sister. When the language dies, we will lose the concept of the word and the emotions it evokes.
(d) The Nicobarese language describes 20 different moods of the ocean. By the time the last speaker is educated in a Central Board school, they will have forgotten their language.

Ans: b

Sol: The passage is about languages lost and the loss of the worldview, culture and knowledge of the people who spoke the language along with it. Options 1, 3 and 4 all relate to this kind of loss.
 Option 2, on the other hand, is about the loss of one more group from the government list of indigenous tribes. This does not relate to the loss described in the passage.

Passage - 11

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
Moutai has been the global booze sensation of the decade. A bottle of its Flying Fairy which sold in the 1980s for the equivalent of a dollar now retails for $400. Moutai's listed shares have soared by almost 600% in the past five years, outpacing the likes of Amazon. . . .
It does this while disregarding every Western marketing mantra. It is not global, has meagre digital sales and does not appeal to millennials. It scores pitifully on environmental, social and governance measures. In the Boy Scout world of Western business it would leave a bad taste, in more ways than one.
Moutai owes its intoxicating success to three factors—not all of them easy to emulate. First, it profits from Chinese nationalism. Moutai is known as the "national liquor". It was used to raise spirits and disinfect wounds in Mao's Long March. It was Premier Zhou Enlai's favourite tipple, shared with Richard Nixon in 1972. Its centuries-old craftsmanship—it is distilled eight times and stored for years in earthenware jars—is a source of national pride. It also claims to be hangover-proof, which would make it an invention to rival gunpowder....
Second, it chose to serve China's super-rich rather than its middle class. Markets are littered with the corpses of firms that could not compete in the cut-throat battle for Chinese middle-class wallets. And the country's premium market is massive—at 73m-strong, bigger than the population of France, notes Euan McLeish of Bernstein, an investment firm, and still less crowded with prestige brands than advanced economies. Moutai is to these well-heeled drinkers what vintage champagne is to the rest of the world.....
Third, Moutai looks beyond affluent millennials and digital natives. The elderly and the middle-aged, it found, can be just as lucrative. Its biggest market now is (male) drinkers in their mid-30s. Many have no siblings, thanks to four decades of China's one-child policy—which also means their elderly parents can splash out on weddings and banquets. Moutai is often a guest of honour.
Moutai has succeeded thanks to nationalism, elitism and ageism, in other words—not in spite of this unholy trinity. But it faces risks. The government is its largest shareholder—and a meddlesome one. It appears to want prices to remain stable. Exorbitantly priced booze is at odds with its professed socialist ideals. Yet minority investors—including many foreign funds—lament that Moutai's wholesale price is a third of what it sells for in shops. Raising it could boost the company's profits further. Instead, in what some see as a travesty of corporate governance, its majority owner has plans to set up its own sales channel.....
In the long run, its biggest risk may be millennials. As they grow older, health concerns, work-life balance and the desire for more wholesome pursuits than binge-drinking may curb the "Ganbei!" toasting culture [heavy drinking] on which so much of the demand for Moutai rests. For the time being, though, the party goes on.

Q1: Which one of the following is both a reason for Moutai's success as well as a possible threat to that success? 
(a) Its appeal to the rich.
(b) Government involvement in its business.
(c) Its appeal to the older age group.
(d) Chinese love of liquor filled celebration.

Ans: c

Sol: According to the passage, Moutai has succeeded thanks to nationalism, elitism and ageism. It faces risks due to government meddling, lack of corporate governance and aging millennials being prompted to put an end to the heavy drinking culture due to various factors.
 The passage identifies ageism as both a reason for Moutai's success ("The elderly and the middle-aged, it found, can be just as lucrative") as well as a threat ("In the long run, its biggest risk may be millennials. As they grow older, health concerns, work-life balance and the desire for more wholesome pursuits than binge-drinking may curb the “Ganbei!” toasting culture [heavy drinking] on which so much of the demand for Moutai rests"). So, option 3 is the correct choice.
 Note that Moutai's appeal to the rich is not identified as a threat to its success.
 Government involvement in the business is only identified as a threat, not reason for success.
 Chinese love of liquor-filled celebration is a reason for and not a threat to Moutai's success. As millennials grow older, they may put an end to the heavy drinking culture and it is that which poses a threat to Moutai.

Q2: In the context of the passage we can infer that to succeed in the liquor industry in China, a marketing firm must consider all of the following factors affecting the Chinese liquor market EXCEPT that 
(a) the competition for winning over the middle class is very stiff.
(b) there is money to be made from marketing to the middle class.
(c) the government may control the pricing of products.
(d) there are few competitors to meet the demands of high end liquor consumers.

Ans: b

Sol: Let us consider each option in order.
 Both options 1 and 2 relate to the middle class market for liquor in China. Regarding this, the passage says, "Markets are littered with the corpses of firms that could not compete in the cut-throat battle for Chinese middle-class wallets." In other words, the competition for winning over the middle class is very stiff and cut-throat. Many firms tried their hand in competing in this market and failed. So, option 1 is true while 2 is false.
 Option 3 is true, based on the penultimate paragraph.
 Option 4 is true as well: "And the country’s premium market is massive—at 73m-strong, bigger than the population of France, notes Euan McLeish of Bernstein, an investment firm, and still less crowded with prestige brands than advanced economies."
 So, option 2 is the correct answer choice.

Q3: In the context of the passage, it is most likely that the author refers to Moutai's marketing strategy as "the unholy trinity" because 
(a) it profits from Chinese nationalist feelings.
(b) it exposes the firm to long term risks.
(c) it contradicts the Western strategy of marketing.
(d) there is nothing holy about marketing techniques for liquor.

Ans: c

Sol: Right at the beginning of the passage, the author observes that Moutai has succeeded "while disregarding every Western marketing mantra. It is not global, has meagre digital sales and does not appeal to millennials." It is this that he refers to while stating that Moutai has succeeded thanks to nationalism, elitism and ageism and not in spite of this "unholy" trinity. So, option 3 is the correct choice.
 Option 1 only relates to nationalism and does not explain the reference to “the unholy trinity”. Option 4 is irrelevant and easily ruled out.
 Only option 2 is close, as it seems reasonable at first to think that it is because of the risks that the reliance on nationalism, elitism and ageism exposes Moutai to that the author calls it “the unholy trinity”. But this option is incorrect as neither nationalism nor elitism are identified as threats to Moutai's success by the author.

Q4: The phrase "would make it an invention to rival gunpowder" has been used in the passage in a sense that is 
(a) substantive.
(b) metaphorical.
(c) literal.
(d) synonymical.

Ans: b

Sol: The author draws parallels between Moutai and gunpowder in terms of the potency of the invention. The usage is metaphorical.
 Anything that is substantive has a firm basis in reality. The comparison here is not substantive or literal. Nor is it synonymical, that is, having the same meaning.

Passage - 12

The passage below is accompanied by four questions. Based on the passage, choose the best answer for each question.
Fears of artificial intelligence (AI) have haunted humanity since the very beginning of the computer age. Hitherto these fears focused on machines using physical means to kill, enslave or replace people. But over the past couple of years new AI tools have emerged that threaten the survival of human civilisation from an unexpected direction. AI has gained some remarkable abilities to manipulate and generate language, whether with words, sounds or images. AI has thereby hacked the operating system of our civilisation.
Language is the stuff almost all human culture is made of. Human rights, for example, aren't inscribed in our DNA. Rather, they are cultural artefacts we created by telling stories and writing laws. Gods aren't physical realities. Rather, they are cultural artefacts we created by inventing myths and writing scriptures….What would happen once a non-human intelligence becomes better than the average human at telling stories, composing melodies, drawing images, and writing laws and scriptures? When people think about Chatgpt and other new AI tools, they are often drawn to examples like school children using AI to write their essays. What will happen to the school system when kids do that? But this kind of question misses the big picture. Forget about school essays. Think of the next American presidential race in 2024, and try to imagine the impact of AI tools that can be made to mass-produce political content, fake-news stories and scriptures for new cults…
Through its mastery of language, AI could even form intimate relationships with people, and use the power of intimacy to change our opinions and worldviews. Although there is no indication that AI has any consciousness or feelings of its own, to foster fake intimacy with humans it is enough if the AI can make them feel emotionally attached to it….
What will happen to the course of history when AI takes over culture, and begins producing stories, melodies, laws and religions? Previous tools like the printing press and radio helped spread the cultural ideas of humans, but they never created new cultural ideas of their own. AI is fundamentally different. AI can create completely new ideas, completely new culture…. Of course, the new power of AI could be used for good purposes as well. I won't dwell on this, because the people who develop AI talk about it enough….
We can still regulate the new AI tools, but we must act quickly. Whereas nukes cannot invent more powerful nukes, AI can make exponentially more powerful AI.… Unregulated AI deployments would create social chaos, which would benefit autocrats and ruin democracies. Democracy is a conversation, and conversations rely on language. When AI hacks language, it could destroy our ability to have meaningful conversations, thereby destroying democracy….And the first regulation I would suggest is to make it mandatory for AI to disclose that it is an AI. If I am having a conversation with someone, and I cannot tell whether it is a human or an AI—that's the end of democracy. This text has been generated by a human. Or has it?

Q1: The author identifies all of the following as dire outcomes of the capture of language by AI EXCEPT that it could 
(a) out-strip human creativity and endeavours in the spheres such as art and music and, in the formulation of laws.
(b) apply its mastery of language to create strong emotional ties which could exacerbate the polarization of political views.
(c) spawn a completely new culture through its ability to create new ideas and opinions.
(d) eventually subvert democratic processes through the mass creation and spread of fake political content and news.

Ans: b

Sol: Tricky question as all options seem apt at first glance.
 Refer to the lines, "What will happen to the course of history when AI takes over culture, and begins producing stories, melodies, laws and religions? Previous tools like the printing press and radio helped spread the cultural ideas of humans, but they never created new cultural ideas of their own. AI is fundamentally different. AI can create completely new ideas, completely new culture." Based on these lines, we know options 1 and 3 are mentioned in the passage.
 Option 4, too, relates to concerns raised by the author: "Think of the next American presidential race in 2024, and try to imagine the impact of AI tools that can be made to mass-produce political content, fake-news stories and scriptures for new cults…"
 Though the passage says AI could "form intimate relationships with people, and use the power of intimacy to change our opinions and worldviews", it does not specifically say that this could be used to exacerbate the polarization of political views. So, option 2 is the correct answer choice.

Q2: The author terms language "the operating system of our civilization" for all the following reasons EXCEPT that it 
(a) is fundamental to the articulation and spread of human values and culture in our society.
(b) has laid the foundation for the creation of cultural artefacts through writing and telling of stories.
(c) can influence political views and opinions as it engenders close emotional ties among people.
(d) is the basis of AI tools like ChatGPT which can be used to generate academic content and opinion.

Ans: b

Sol: The author says language is "stuff almost all human culture is made of", for it is using language that we create cultural artefacts like stories, art, laws and scripture. Options 1 and 2 are ruled out.
 Further, the author remarks that with its mastery of language, "AI could even form intimate relationships with people, and use the power of intimacy to change our opinions and worldviews." So, option 3 is also ruled out.
 Consider option 4. AI tools have mastery of language but this does not mean language is the basis of AI tools like ChatGPT. This is hence the correct answer choice.

Q3: The tone of the passage could best be described as 
(a) cautionary, because the author lays out some adverse effects of the proliferation of unregulated AI tools.
(b) alarmist, because the passage discusses scenarios of the influence of new AI tools on language and human emotions.
(c) quizzical, as the passage poses several questions, concluding with the question of whether or not the passage content has been generated by AI.
(d) prescient, as the author analyses the future impact of the use of new AI tools on crucial areas of our society and culture.

Ans: a

Sol: The passage discusses some dire outcomes of the proliferation of unregulated AI. The tone is cautionary. Option 1 is the correct choice.
 The author is not being alarmist. He is not trying to raise unnecessary fear on the impact of AI. So, option 2 is incorrect.
 The author is not merely raising questions but also cautioning against unregulated AI. Option 3 is hence incorrect.
 The author is not predicting the future, that is, being prescient, either. So, option 4 is incorrect.

Q4: We can infer that the author is most likely to agree with which of the following statements? 
(a) People's fears of the dangers of students using ChatGPT and other new AI tools are unfounded.
(b) Apart from its drawbacks, AI tools have been beneficial in boosting technological and industrial advance worldwide.
(c) The commonly expressed fear that future AI developments will fatally harm humans is unfounded.
(d) One of the biggest casualties from the spread of unregulated AI is likely to be the democratic process.

Ans: d

Sol: Option 4 sums up the main idea of the last paragraph: unregulated AI could ruin democracies. So, option 4 is the correct choice.
The author does not dismiss people’s fears of the dangers of students using ChatGPT. He only says this line of thinking misses the big picture. Option 1 is not a statement the author is likely to agree with.
With regard to the good uses of AI, the author says he would not dwell on it as those who develop AI talk about it enough. It is the drawbacks of unregulated AI that the author focuses on. Option 2 is not as good a choice as 4.
The author is not likely to dismiss any fear of potentially harmful AI developments in future, as he too shares these fears. So, option 3 is also ruled out.