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Contribution of Indian School of Philosophy in Education

Education is crucial for a person's overall development. Indian philosophy and education are closely linked, often overlapping in their principles.

Education involves guiding a child into a particular way of life. An educator not only holds specific beliefs and ideals but also aims to instill these beliefs and ways of life in their students. Essentially, education is the process of influencing someone to adopt certain beliefs and ways of living.

Origin of the Term "Education"

The word "education" comes from three Latin words:

Educare: This means to bring up, nourish, rear, and train.

Educere: This implies to draw out and lead out.

Educo: "E" means "out of," and "duco" means "to lead." This denotes extracting and leading forth.

Definitions of Education by Renowned Thinkers

Plato: Education develops all the beauty and perfection in the body and soul of the pupil.

Pestalozzi: Education is the natural, harmonious, and progressive development of a person's innate powers.

Froebel: Education is the unfolding of what is already contained in the germ.

Aristotle: Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body.

Aurobindo: Education means helping the growing soul to draw out what is within itself.

Swami Vivekananda: Education is the manifestation of divine perfection already existing in man.

Gandhiji: Education is all-round drawing out the best in a child and a person, body, mind, and spirit.

John Dewey: Education is the process of continuous reconstruction of experience.

Conclusion: Education is the process of facilitating learning, acquiring knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits, teaching us to be true human beings.

Nature of Education

The nature of education encompasses several key characteristics that define its essence:

• Education is Purposive: Every educational activity is driven by a specific purpose.
• Education is Planned: Education is systematic and requires careful planning to be effective.
• Education is Lifelong: Education begins at conception and continues throughout life, encompassing development from infancy to maturity and the impact of various influences on human personality.
• Education is for Overall Development: Education aims at the holistic development of an individual’s personality.
• Education is Bi-Polar: There is a mutual influence between the teacher and the pupil in the educational process.
• Education is Tri-Polar: Education involves the teacher, the pupil, and the environment, all of which play crucial roles.
• Education is Psychological and Social: The capacities, needs, and interests of the child must be understood in relation to their social environment.

Scope of Education

Education plays a crucial role in the life of human beings, encompassing various aspects and dimensions. It is a lifelong process that is concerned with the overall development of individuals, including their physical, mental, aesthetic, cultural, ethical, intellectual, social, spiritual, and vocational growth.

Key Points:

• Lifelong Process: Education is not limited to a specific period but continues throughout life.
• Overall Development: It aims at the holistic development of individuals, covering all aspects of their personality.
• Innate Abilities: Education focuses on maximizing the development of individuals' inherent abilities and potential.
• Character and Personality: It also plays a vital role in shaping the character and personality of individuals.

Philosophy

Philosophy involves examining fundamental issues related to reality, existence, knowledge, values, reasoning, the mind, and language. It seeks to understand the nature of life and the universe, aiming to comprehend the essence of existence. Philosophy is a human endeavor that aspires to uncover ultimate truths.

The term 'Philosophy' in English comes from the Greek word 'philo-sophia,' where 'philo' means 'love' and 'sophia' means 'human reason' or 'wisdom.' This can be interpreted as a love for reason or human judgment and discrimination. From an Indian perspective, philosophy entails observing and surveying existence.

In Sanskrit, philosophy is called 'Darshana,' which derives from the word 'drs,' meaning to see or view. Darshana emphasizes seeing and understanding the reality and facts of experience, focusing on the inner self or soul. It involves a comprehensive view of truth and reality through six different perspectives. Philosophy is also referred to as 'Tatva' in Sanskrit, which pertains to the nature of reality.

The history of philosophy explores philosophical ideas and concepts across different cultures and time periods, including prehistoric, medieval, and modern times, as well as eastern, western, religious, and secular traditions. According to John Grier Hibben, philosophy aims to reveal the underlying reality behind appearances. Plato viewed philosophy as the acquisition of knowledge.

Branches of Philosophy

Philosophy is commonly divided into several branches:

Metaphysics : This branch explores the nature and ultimate significance of the universe.

Logic : Logic is concerned with the principles of valid reasoning.

Epistemology : Epistemology investigates the nature of knowledge and the processes involved in knowing.

Ethics : Ethics deals with questions of right conduct and moral behavior.

Aesthetics : Aesthetics aims to determine the nature of beauty and the criteria for artistic judgment.

To gain a deeper understanding of philosophy, it is helpful to distinguish between two traditions: 'Indian Philosophy' and 'Western Philosophy'.

Philosophy of Education

Education has been defined in two ways: (i) As an institutional instruction given to students in schools and colleges, formally. (ii) As a pedagogical science studied by the students of education.

Philosophy of education is a philosophical study of education and its problems. It is a branch of philosophy that addresses the fundamental nature and aims of education. It involves examining the processes of teaching and learning, the role of educational institutions, and the impact of education on individuals and society.

Philosophy of education is the study of the fundamental nature and aims of education. It involves the examination of the processes of teaching and learning, the role of educational institutions, and the impact of education on individuals and society.

Scope of Philosophy of Education

The scope of the philosophy of education includes the following:

Aims and Ideals of Philosophy of Education

• Education as a discipline critically evaluates different aims and ideals of education.

• These aims and ideals, propagated by various philosophers at different times, include character building, man-making, harmonious human development, preparation for adult life, development of citizenship, and achieving social and national integration.

Interpretation of Human Nature

• A philosophical picture of human nature is a synthesis of facts from all human sciences and values from normative sciences.

• This philosophical perspective is broader than those drawn by Biology, Sociology, Psychology, Economics, and Anthropology.

Educational Values

• Values are philosophical subjects because they are abstract, integral, and universal.

Theory of Knowledge

• Education is related to knowledge, which is determined by its source, limits, criteria, and means.

Relationship Between Education and National Components of System of Education

• The philosophy of education provides criteria for deciding the relationship between state and education, economic system and education, curriculum and school, and organization and management discipline.

The Connection Between Philosophy and Education

Education and philosophy are closely linked and cannot be separated. Here are some points to explain their relationship:

• Aim: Both education and philosophy aim at the understanding and promotion of life. Education focuses on the all-round development of individuals, while philosophy seeks to understand the nature of life.
• Direction: Philosophy provides direction for leading a harmonious life, and education relies on this guidance. There is a constant interaction and mutual agreement between the two.
• Means and Ends: Philosophy deals with the end results, while education focuses on the means to achieve those results.
• Practical Application: Education is the practical means of realizing the ideals set by philosophy. It is the dynamic side of philosophy.
• Understanding the Past: The study of the philosophy of education helps in understanding the past of education and developing perspectives and tools to tackle educational problems.

Indian Philosophy

Indian philosophy has its roots in the later part of the Rig Veda, compiled before 1100 BC. The Rig Veda, especially the Purusha Sukta and Nasadiya Sukta, contains early philosophical thought. The Vedas are followed by the Upanishads, with the oldest, like the Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, dating to around the 8th century BC.

• The Upanishads lay the foundation for Indian religions such as Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. These religions built upon the thoughts of the Upanishads, which were further developed by Buddhist and Jain philosophies.
• Philosophy is defined as the rational investigation of questions about existence, knowledge, and ethics. The main schools of Indian philosophy were formalized between 1000 BC and the early centuries AD.
• Later centuries produced commentaries and reformulations of these philosophies, continuing up to the 20th century by figures like Sri Aurobindo Ghosh and Swami Prabhupada.
• There was intense competition and integration among various philosophical schools, especially between 800 BC and AD 200.

History of Indian Philosophy

Philosophy in India has a long and complex history, making it challenging for historians to pinpoint when specific philosophies developed. There is ongoing debate about the origin of the Aryans and the timeframe for the emergence of Vedic civilization in India.

• Western scholars often believe that the Aryans migrated from North Central Asia around 15000 BC. However, this view is contested by other scholars. Some Indian scholars argue that the Aryans were indigenous to India and that the Vedic civilization emerged 4000 to 8000 years ago.
• Indian scholar Lokmanya Tilak suggested that the earliest Vedic hymns might have been composed around 6000 years ago, with later texts like the Upanishads being about 3000 years old.
• According to Dr. Radhakrishnan, the history of Indian philosophy can be outlined as follows:
• The Vedic period (1500 BC to 600 BC)
• The Epic period (600 BC to AD 200)
• The Sutra period (AD 200 to AD 1700)
• The Scholastic period (from the Sutra period to the 17th century)

Characteristics of Indian Philosophy

Except for Charvakism, Indian philosophies share several common characteristics. Charvakism stands out because it advocates for materialism.

The following characteristics are common to all other systems:

• Positive Impact on Life: All schools emphasize that philosophy must have a positive impact on human life.
• From Darkness to Light: Philosophy is believed to lead individuals from darkness and ignorance to light and knowledge.
• Verifiable Truth and Reality: There is a general agreement that truth and reality should be verifiable, supported by reasoning and experience.
• Conquering Ignorance: All schools accept that human suffering results from ignorance and that it can be conquered, leading to total freedom or Moksha in bodily existence.
• Essential Spirituality: There is a consensus on man's essential spirituality or spiritual unity.

Classification of Indian Schools of Philosophy

Indian philosophy is divided into two main groups based on their acceptance of the Vedas:

(i) Orthodox System: This group upholds the supremacy of the Vedas and includes the following schools:

• Vaisheshika: Focuses on the nature of reality and the classification of substances.
• Nyaya: Emphasizes logic and epistemology, aiming to establish knowledge through reasoning.
• Sankhya: Presents a dualistic framework of reality, distinguishing between consciousness and matter.
• Yoga: Advocates for physical and mental disciplines to attain spiritual realization.
• Purva Mimamsa: Concentrates on the ritualistic and ethical aspects of the Vedas.
• Uttara Mimamsa: Also known as Vedanta, this school explores the philosophical teachings found in the latter part of the Vedas.

( ii ) Unorthodox System: This group rejects the authority of the Vedas and includes schools such as:

• Charvaka: A materialistic and skeptical philosophy.
• Jainism: Emphasizes non-violence, truth, and asceticism.
• Buddhism: Focuses on the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path to attain enlightenment.

Note: Purva Mimamsa is often referred to simply as Mimamsa, and Uttara Mimamsa is called Vedanta. The schools of Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, and Yoga are sometimes considered neither strictly orthodox nor unorthodox.

Proponents of the Indian Systems of Philosophy

1. Orthodox System

Gautama (Proponent of Nyaya)

Kanada (Proponent of Vaisheshika)

Kapila (Proponent of Sankhya)

Patanjali (Proponent of Yoga)

Jamini (Proponent of Purva Mimamsa)

Shankara (Proponent of Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta)

2. Unorthodox System

Vardhamana (Mahavira) (Proponent of Jainism)

Buddha (Proponent of Buddhism)

Emphasis on Understanding Education: The focus is on gaining a better understanding of education within the framework of these Indian schools of philosophy, particularly in relation to Sankhya, Yoga, Vedanta, Buddhism, Jainism, Dayananda Darshan, and Islamic Philosophy.

Explanation of Sankhya Philosophy

Sankhya is one of the oldest and most important schools of thought in Indian philosophy. The word 'Sankhya' comes from the Sanskrit word meaning 'number,' as this school aims to specify the number and nature of the ultimate constituents of the universe, providing knowledge of reality. In fact, Sankhya also means perfect knowledge, indicating that it is a system focused on achieving perfect understanding.

Sankhya is one of the six Orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy and classical Indian philosophy. Sage Kapila is traditionally credited as the founder of the Sankhya school. It is regarded as one of the oldest philosophical systems in India. Based on the Upanishads, two schools of philosophies developed in India and they are-

• The Realistic (e.g. Sankhya)

• The Idealistic (e.g. Vedanta)

Sankhya and Yoga

The philosophy of Sankhya is often combined with the principles of Yoga. It is important to note that Sankhya represents the theoretical aspect, while Yoga focuses on the practical application of these principles.

Key Concepts of Sankhya

• Purusha : This refers to consciousness or the spiritual essence of individuals. Purusha is considered eternal and unchanging.
• Prakriti : This represents the phenomenal realm of matter, including all physical and mental phenomena. Prakriti is dynamic and constantly evolving.

Denial of Ishvara

Sankhya philosophy denies the existence of Ishvara (God) or any external influence in the functioning of the universe. It emphasizes the self-sufficiency of Purusha and Prakriti in explaining the nature of reality.

Metaphysics of Sankhya

Sankhya presents a dualistic and realistic view of reality. It is dualistic because it posits two ultimate realities: Prakriti (Matter) and Purusha (Self-spirit). It is realistic because it asserts that both matter and spirit are equally real. Regarding the self, Sankhya is pluralistic, teaching that Purusha is not one but many.

Purusha is described as the transcendental self or pure consciousness. It is characterized as absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, and unknowable through other agencies. Purusha is beyond any experience by the mind or senses and cannot be captured by words or explanations. It is neither produced nor does it produce anything.

Understanding Prakriti in Sankhya Philosophy

Prakriti is seen as the fundamental cause of the material universe, encompassing everything except for Purusha, which represents consciousness or spirit. Prakriti includes all that is physical, both mind and matter. It is made up of three core qualities, known as gunas :

• Sattva: This quality is associated with purity, lightness, clarity, and joy. It represents qualities such as harmony and knowledge.
• Rajas: Rajas signifies activity, energy, and passion. It is linked to dynamism, restlessness, and sometimes suffering .
• Tamas: This quality embodies heaviness, darkness, inertia, and ignorance. It represents qualities such as lethargy and obstruction.

The Sankhya philosophy provides a comprehensive framework for understanding all levels of manifestation, from the most subtle to the grossest forms. The term "Sankhya" comes from "Samyag Alchyate," meaning "that which explains the whole."

According to Sankhya philosophy, creation involves the union of two entities: nature (Prakriti) and God (Ishvara). Just as one cannot clap with one hand, both entities are necessary for creation. Causation plays a crucial role in Indian philosophy, where concepts are developed based on causal relationships. There are two main views on the theory of causation in Indian philosophy:

• Satkaryavada: This view holds that the effect (Karya) is real and exists in a potential form within the cause (Karana) even before its manifestation.
• Asatkaryavada: Also known as Arambhavada, this theory suggests that the effect is a new creation, marking a new beginning. For example, when milk is transformed into curd, it represents a new creation.

While both Sankhya and Vedanta uphold Satkaryavada, their interpretations differ.

Concept of Evolution in Sankhya Philosophy

In Sankhya philosophy, evolution is based on the interaction between Prakriti (nature) and Purusha (consciousness). Prakriti remains unmanifested when the three Gunas (qualities) are in balance. This balance is disrupted when Prakriti comes into contact with Purusha, leading to evolution and the manifestation of the world from unmanifest Prakriti.

• The process is likened to the movement of iron towards a magnet, illustrating how the presence of consciousness initiates evolution.
• Some manifestations of Prakriti, known as evoluents, trigger further evolution. For example, the intellect, while being a product of Prakriti, gives rise to the ego-sense (ahamkara) and is therefore an evoluent.
• In contrast, other evolutes, like the five elements, do not induce further evolution. An evoluent is defined as a principle that acts as the material cause for the evolution of another principle.
• The intellect, called Mahat or the great one, is the first evolute of Prakriti. It leads to the evolution of self-consciousness (ahamkara). The subsequent evolution from self-consciousness depends on the dominance of the Gunas:
• Sattva dominance results in the evolution of the five organs of perception, five organs of action, and the mind.
• Tamas dominance triggers the evolution of the five subtle elements: sound, touch, sight, taste, and smell.
• These subtle elements, in turn, give rise to the five gross elements: space, air, fire, water, and earth. Rajas is the cause of action in these evolutions.
• Purusha is pure consciousness, eternal, unchanging, and not a product of evolution nor the cause of any evolute. Evolution in Sankhya is considered purposeful, with the primary aims being the enjoyment and liberation of Purusha.

Historical Development of Sankhya

Sankhya is believed to have developed into a well-organized philosophical system in the early centuries. Before this period, there is little evidence of the existence of the Sankhya school. However, the concepts that were later integrated into the classical Sankhya text, the Sankhya Karika, can be found in earlier Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita.

The Purusha Sukta hymn may have also played a role in shaping Sankhya thought. This hymn presents a fundamental idea of Purusha as a cosmic being from whom all manifestations arise. The Sankhya concept of Buddhi or Mahat is akin to the notion of Hiranyagarbha, which appears in both the Rig Veda and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad.

Educational Implications of Sankhya Philosophy

Development as Unfolding Potential

• Sankhya philosophy suggests that development is the unfolding of inherent potential. This aligns with the modern view of education as development.
• Education, therefore, is about bringing out the fullest potential that is already present within individuals.

Difference Between Prakriti and Purusha

• Sankhya emphasizes the need to understand the difference between Prakriti (Matter) and Purusha (Spirit). This distinction is crucial in true education.
• Education should aim to make learners aware of this difference, which is fundamental to their development.

Relevance to Contemporary Education

• Sankhya's views are relevant to contemporary education, especially in the context of development and learning theories.
• The idea that development is the unfolding of existing potential is applicable today.

Modification of Buddhi and Behavior

• In the Sankhya system, knowledge modifies Buddhi (intellect), which parallels the modern educational aim of modifying behavior.
• Cognition in Sankhya, being a function of Buddhi, relates to the formation of intellectual structures in modern education.

Concept Formation

• Sankhya's view that generalization comes from observing elements and not observing non-elements reflects the modern understanding of concept formation.
• This shows the importance of both observation and non-observation in developing concepts.

Fundamentals of Education

Sankhya Philosophy and Education According to Sankhya philosophy, education should focus on developing the body, mind, and soul of an individual. The body consists of the senses and organs, while the inner self is made up of the mind, ego, and intellect. The soul enlightens these three elements. The ultimate purpose of life, according to Sankhya, is Mukti or liberation, which involves distinguishing between matter and spirit. Education should aim to help individuals achieve this distinction and gain freedom from life's sufferings. End (Saddhya) as the Purpose of Education The basic purpose of education, according to Sankhya, is the End (Saddhya). To realize this end, the practice of Yoga is necessary. Moral conduct is the first requirement for practicing Yoga (Yoga-Sadhana). In modern terms, this purpose of education can be further analyzed to emphasize the importance of developing the body, mind, and spirit in a balanced manner to achieve overall well-being and liberation.

Introduction

Sankhya philosophy, a school of Indian thought, emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter) to attain liberation from suffering. According to this philosophy, true knowledge leads to the realization of Purusha as separate from Prakriti, which is essential for overcoming the miseries associated with the body, mind, and soul. The miseries are categorized as:

• Adhyatmik: Misery related to the spiritual realm, affecting the soul.
• Adhibhautik: Misery arising from the external world, impacting the body and mind.
• Dam Peakop: Misery caused by divine disorder, affecting both the individual and the cosmos.

Aim of Education

• To help individuals develop the ability to discriminate between Purusha and Prakriti, leading to the perfection of Purusha.
• To create discerning individuals who can attain their inner perfection and achieve salvation.

Methods of Teaching

• Study of Authorities: Learning from authoritative texts while maintaining an open mind and using reason to validate their theories.
• Experiential Learning: Engaging in learning experiences that involve maximum sensory involvement.
• Activity-Based Learning: Participating in projects, practical work, and activities that foster observation and logical reasoning skills.

Curriculum

• Study of all disciplines with a focus on natural sciences and arts.
• Emphasis on understanding Prakriti to discriminate between Purusha and Prakriti.
• Inclusion of physical science and yoga to promote health and focus, essential for attaining salvation.

Discipline

• High degree of self-imposed discipline is recommended.

Role of a Teacher

• The teacher acts as a facilitator, helping to develop the innate potential of each child.

Place of Student

• Education should be individualized and child-centered, recognizing the multiplicity of Purusha as per Sankhya belief.

Religious and Moral Education

Religious Education

Religious education is likely to play a minimal role in an educational system based on Sankhya philosophy. The focus will not be on religious teachings or practices.

Moral Education

In contrast, moral education, which involves teaching ethical values, will hold a central and crucial place in such an educational system. Ethical values and moral principles will be fundamental to the curriculum.

Yoga System according to Patanjali

Patanjali is considered the founder of the Yoga System. The term "Yoga" literally means "Union," referring to the spiritual union of the individual soul with the universal soul, as understood in Vedanta. However, according to Patanjali, Yoga does not solely mean union but rather the spiritual effort to attain perfection through the control of the body, senses, and mind, as well as through the right discrimination between Purusha (the spiritual essence) and Prakriti (nature or matter).

Patanjali's Theory of Pramana

Pramana in Sankhya and Yoga

• Sankhya and Yoga are considered aligned systems of thought in Indian philosophy.
• The Yoga school of thought shares a similar theory of knowledge with Sankhya.
• Like Sankhya, Yoga accepts three independent sources of valid knowledge, known as Pramanas: perception, inference, and verbal testimony (Sabda).
• Other sources of knowledge, such as comparison, postulation (Arthapatti), and non-cognition (Anupalabdhi), are included under these three categories in Yoga and Sankhya, rather than being recognized as separate sources.

Perception

Perception refers to the immediate awareness of an object when it comes into contact with one of our senses. For example, when a table is within the range of our eyesight, it creates a specific impression on our sense organs, which is then processed and interpreted by our mind. According to the Sankhya philosophy, perception occurs when there is a reflection of the self in the intellect, which has been altered to resemble the object being perceived.

There are two types of perception:

• Nirvikalpaka (indeterminate) perception: This is the initial moment of perception when a sense organ first comes into contact with an object. It happens before any mental analysis or interpretation of the sensory information.
• Sanikalpaka (determinate) perception: This type of perception occurs after the mind has analyzed, synthesized, and interpreted the sensory data. It involves mental processing and is a more refined form of perception.

Inference

Inference is when we know one thing because it is always related to another thing that we can see.

• Inference is the process of understanding or knowing something that is not directly observed by relying on the knowledge of a universal relationship between two things. It involves perceiving one term of a relation and using it to gain knowledge about another term that is invariably related to the first.
• In inference, what is perceived leads us to the knowledge of what is unperceived through the understanding of the universal relation between the two. This relation is known as Vyapti, which is established through repeated observation of the concomitance between the two things.
• For example, if we repeatedly observe that dark clouds are always followed by rain, we establish the Vyapti between dark clouds and rain. Later, if we see dark clouds, we can infer that it will rain, even if we do not see the rain immediately.

Sankhya on Inference

Inference, according to Sankhya, is of two types: 'Vita' and 'Avita'.

• Vita: This type is based on universal affirmative propositions. It is further divided into:
  • Purvavat : Inference based on the observed uniformity of concomitance between two things.
  • Samanyatdrasta : Inference not based on any observation of the concomitance between the middle and major term.
• Avita : This type is based on a universal negative proposition.

Verbal Testimony (Sabda)

Verbal testimony, known as Sabda, refers to the knowledge of objects derived through words. It is considered valid testimony when it comes from a trustworthy person (apta) who knows the truth and conveys it accurately. While Sabda literally means sound (dhwani) , epistemologically it refers to meaningful sound or word. This source of knowledge is crucial because a significant portion of our understanding of the objects in this world comes from words.

Eight Fold Path of Yoga

Yoga aims to control the body, senses, and mind, emphasizing perfection while overcoming sensual attachment and passion. The Yoga System outlines an eight-fold path of discipline known as "Ashtanga Yoga," which includes:

(i) Vow

• Vows are seen as abstention and include the five principles of Jainism: Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).

(ii) Self-Culture

• Self-culture involves external and internal purification practices.

(iii) Asana

• Asana refers to steady and comfortable postures that aid in physical preparation for meditation.

(iv) Pranayama

• Pranayama involves the control of breath, including the regulation of inhalation and exhalation, which is crucial for mental concentration.

(v) Pratyahara

• Pratyahara is the control of the senses, also known as the process of introversion.

(vi) Dharana

• Dharana involves the fixation of the mind on the object of meditation, ensuring steadfastness of the mind.

(vii) Dhyana

• Dhyana is meditation, characterized by uninterrupted and steadfast contemplation.

(viii) Samadhi

• Samadhi is concentration, where the mind is fully absorbed in the object of meditation.

Types of Dhyana

Dhyana is a deep state of meditation that can be classified into two types:

I. Ekagra Dhyana

• In this type, the focus remains on the object of meditation.
• The consciousness of the object is sustained throughout the practice.

II. Nirudha Dhyana

• Here, the consciousness of the object of meditation is transcended.
• This represents a higher state of meditation where the object is no longer the focus.

Patanjali's Concept of Chitta and Chitta-Vrtti

• Yoga is defined as the cessation of the modifications of Chitta, which can only be achieved through meditation.
• Chitta refers to the three internal organs of Sankhya, namely Buddhi (intellect), Ego (self), and Manas (mind).
• Antahkarana and Chitta are synonymous terms, with Chitta being the first evolute of Prakriti (nature).
• Chitta is characterized by the predominance of Sattva (purity) and is considered unconscious, yet it is closest to Purusha (the spiritual essence) and reflects Purusha.
• Vrtti refers to modification, and when Chitta relates to an object, it takes on the form of that object. Chitta serves as the physical medium for the manifestation of the spirit.

Five Types of Chitta Modification

Chitta, or mind-stuff, can be modified in five different ways:

1. Right Cognition: This includes perception, inference, and verbal testimony. It refers to accurate and valid knowledge.
2. Wrong Cognition: This pertains to knowledge that is positively incorrect or false.
3. Verbal Cognition: This involves imagination or the formation of ideas based on verbal inputs.
4. Absence of Cognition: Known as "Nidra," this refers to a state where there is no cognitive activity or awareness.
5. Memory: Referred to as "Smrti," this is the recollection of past experiences. It requires the presence of mental impressions.

Sufferings of Life

• Ignorance: Lack of knowledge or awareness.
• Egoism: A strong sense of self-importance or self-centeredness.
• Attachment: A strong emotional bond or connection to something.
• Aversion: A strong dislike or repulsion towards something.
• Clinging to Life: An instinctive attachment to life and existence.
• Fear of Death: An instinctive fear of death and the unknown.

Yoga in Education

Introduction

• Education in Yoga is considered a spiritual and social necessity because its goal is to achieve the highest evolution of the human self.
• The ultimate aim of all education, both formal and informal, is to reach a state of bliss or union with the transcendental self, often referred to as God.

Importance of Well-being

• However, the process of self-discipline requires the well-being of the human body and moral readiness. Without these, Yoga cannot be practiced.
• This necessity makes education a fundamental social requirement.

Comprehensive Development

• According to Yoga, the aim of education is the holistic development of human personality and to free individuals from physical, mental, and supernatural sufferings.
• This means that education should focus on the physical, mental, intellectual, and spiritual growth of students.

Moral and Intellectual Growth

• Education in Yoga also aims at the moral preparation of students, spiritual attainment, and the development of a scientific attitude, along with logical and intellectual abilities.
• The goal is to create a society of individuals with noble thoughts and actions.

Role of Teachers

• Teachers in this system are not just theoreticians but also demonstrators of knowledge, willpower, and action.

Method of Education

• The educational method emphasizes a discriminative approach to acquiring knowledge through concentration.
• The discipline of body and mind is central to the educational process, and modern educators must recognize its crucial importance in any form of education.

Methods of Education according to Yoga

Cittavarthiniyodha: This method involves various mental processes such as right cognition, wrong cognition, imagination, and memory. It emphasizes the importance of concentration and meditation in the learning process.

Concentration: Considered the most essential method of education, concentration focuses on developing the ability to focus and concentrate the mind on a particular task or subject.

Scientific Attitude Development: This method involves fostering a scientific attitude and approach towards learning, which includes curiosity, questioning, and critical thinking. Yoga incorporates not only the scientific attitude but also a programmatic approach to education.

Discriminative Method: Yoga believes in a discriminative method of acquiring knowledge, which involves the ability to discern and differentiate between various pieces of information.

Law of Association: The law of association is considered important in Yoga education, which involves linking and associating different pieces of information for better understanding and retention.

Role of Teachers: Teachers play a crucial role in Yoga education. They are not only theoreticians but also demonstrators who provide practical demonstrations to students. Teachers are expected to possess knowledge, willpower, and the ability to take action.

Role of a Student

The student must completely surrender to the teacher for their healing. Without the teacher, the student cannot attain anything.

A. The system focuses on the psycho-physical training of human children.

B. It provides literature that stimulates students' interest in moral life.

C. It includes specific sciences such as medicine, clinical psychology, and social sciences.

D. Yoga endorses subjects related to human physiology, true human nature, and the hidden laws of nature.

E. The system is highly suitable for the evolution of individuals and society.

F. In highly evolved societies, divine culture can be nurtured happily.

Education and discipline are the same. Discipline is the means, and Yoga is the aim. One must discipline oneself physically and intellectually. Disciplining the body and mind is central to the educational process. The education system, not only in India but also in the modern globalizing world, needs to seek guidance from the Yoga System. Therefore, it is crucial to seriously consider the inclusion of Yoga and Yogic values in the education system.

Self-Education through Yoga

Yoga promotes self-education, which is essentially about becoming more aware of oneself. It teaches us how to live wisely, rather than being influenced by worldly distractions. The current education system should incorporate this yogic principle more deeply. Yoga can provide ongoing training to enhance self-awareness and help us understand the true nature of our existence and our potential.

Vedanta and the Upanishads

The most widespread philosophical tradition in India is Vedanta, which comes in various forms. This is because the different schools of Vedanta originate from the Upanishads, which are often called the "Himalayas of the soul." The Upanishads are called Vedanta because they represent the end of the Veda, both in terms of being the concluding part and in terms of their philosophical depth.

Vedanta was initially used in Hindu philosophy to refer to the Upanishads, marking the end of the Vedic texts. In this context, Vedanta is also known as Uttar Mimamsa, and it is often discussed alongside Purva Mimamsa. The Vedanta school is considered more orthodox because of its strict adherence to the Vedic texts and their philosophical sections.

Classification of Vedanta

Advaita Vedanta

• Foundational Ideas: Brahman is the only ultimate reality, and the world is an illusion (Maya). Ignorance causes suffering, and liberation (Moksha) can only be achieved through the true knowledge of Brahman.
• Role of the Guru: The Guru is revered as a manifestation of the divine, guiding seekers towards the realization of Brahman.
• Influence: This school has significantly influenced both Indian and Western philosophers.
• Liberation: Upon liberation, there is no distinction between the individual soul (Jivatman) and Brahman.

Vishishtadvaita

• Founder: Ramanuja
• Key Concepts: The individual soul (Jivatman) is a part of Brahman, similar but not identical. Maya is viewed as the creative power of God.
• Emphasis on Bhakti: Devotional worship of God, particularly in the form of Vishnu, is central to this philosophy.

Dvaita

• Founder: Madhva
• Key Concepts: God is identified with Brahman and is equated with Vishnu or his incarnation, Krishna. The individual soul is considered separate from Brahman.
• Emphasis on Bhakti: Like Vishishtadvaita, Dvaita also advocates Bhakti, but it does not include the concept of Maya.

Dvaitadvaita

• Founder: Nimbarka
• Key Concepts: The relationship between Brahman and Jiva (individual soul) can be viewed as Dvaita (dualism) from one perspective and Advaita (non-dualism) from another.

Shuddhadvaita

• Founder: Vallabha
• Key Concepts: Bhakti is the only means of liberation, leading to Goloka (the world of cows). The material world is considered the divine sport (Leela) of Krishna, who embodies Sat-Chit-Ananda (being, consciousness, and bliss).

Achintya Bhedabheda

• Founder: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
• Key Concepts: This philosophy teaches the simultaneous oneness and difference between the individual soul and God.
• Influence: This doctrine is followed by the ISKCON movement, which emphasizes devotion to Krishna.

Practices and Texts:

• Vedanta philosophy includes contemplative methods of self-inquiry aimed at realizing one's true nature, which is eternal and not subject to decay.
• A key aspect of these practices is the contemplation of Mahavakyas (great sayings).
• The teachings of Vedanta are primarily found in the Upanishads, with the Vivekachudamani by Adi Shankaracharya being a notable text for understanding these concepts.

Vedanta in Education

Education during the Vedic period was considered the third eye, symbolizing insight and illumination. The system of education was derived from the Vedas and is known as the Vedic System of Education.

Vedanta comprises the teachings found in the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. Its core message is that Brahman (God), embodying existence, consciousness, and bliss, is the ultimate reality, while the universe is an illusory phenomenon, much like a mirage or a mistaken perception. The individual self (Jiva) is fundamentally identical to Brahman. The goal of Vedanta is to realize this oneness.

• Tamso-ma-Jyotirgamaya: One of the objectives of education is to eliminate doubts, dogmas, and ignorance through knowledge.
• Individual-Centered Education: Education should focus on the holistic development of an individual.
• Nature-Oriented Education: Educational institutions were situated in natural, serene environments, away from crowded areas. Education should foster a connection between humans and nature.
• Religion-Centered Education: Religion was integral to all aspects of life, including education. Therefore, education should be aligned with religious principles.
• Education of Mind: Education should promote creativity and the pursuit of culture and civilization.
• All Round Development of Child: The primary aim of education was the holistic development of a child's personality. Education was more individualistic than group-based.
• Equality of Opportunity: There was no discrimination based on caste, creed, or color. All students received education on an equal footing. This principle is also upheld in modern India by the Constitution.
• Education for Self-Sufficiency: Education included practical aspects such as agriculture and other vocational skills, alongside art, literature, and philosophy.
• Discipline and Pupil-Teacher Relationship: The Vedic age is known for its sense of discipline and the cordial relationship between teachers and pupils.
• Subject of Studies: Vedic literature emphasizes peace, humanity, and universal brotherhood, which are important parts of the curriculum.
• Commercial Education and Vedic Mathematics: Vedic mathematics, which is gaining popularity, was a significant feature of the Vedic period.

During the Vedanta or Upanishadic period, the process of education involved close interaction between the teacher and pupils. The pupils were expected to listen attentively to their teacher's words. The method of study consisted of six steps:

1. Hearing: The first step involved listening to the teacher's instructions carefully.
2. Recitation: The second step was to practice or recite the taught text.
3. Comprehension: Understanding the meaning of the text was the third step.
4. Inference: The fourth step involved drawing conclusions based on the understanding.
5. Semantic Relation: The fifth step was relating the semantic aspects to the explanatory subject matter and Brahmanic subjects of study.
6. Evidence: The final step involved arriving at conclusions based on evidence or proofs.

The teacher used stories, proverbs, and illustrations to explain the subject matter effectively.

Role of Teacher

• The teacher is not just an instructor but also plays the roles of a guide, mentor, surrogate parent, role model, and friend.
• According to Vedanta, students should acquire knowledge in various subjects. Education is divided into two major parts:
• Supreme Knowledge : This involves understanding the soul, the universe, and God, with the aim of discovering universal truths.
• Practical Subjects : These include studies such as the Vedas, Vedangas, sound systems, religious rites, grammar, astronomy, historical commentaries, Puranas, ethics, and military science.
• Conduct Rules : There should be clear rules of conduct for both teachers and students, including respect that pupils owe to their teachers.
• Student Conduct : Strict rules should be established for student behavior, including a code of dress and the observation of Brahmacharya (celibacy), which is mandatory for all pupils.

Background of Buddhism in India

• Buddhism emerged in India against the backdrop of Brahmanism, which was the dominant religious force. Brahmanical supremacy, along with social and economic inequalities, created a context ripe for protest movements, one of which was Buddhism.
• Siddhartha Gautama, known as the Buddha, was a Kshatriya prince from the Shakya kingdom in the Himalayan foothills. He founded Buddhism, which is based on a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices aimed at achieving liberation from suffering.

Core Principles of Buddhism

• No Central God: Buddhism is unique among world religions in that it does not focus on a deity. Instead, its central aim is to attain Nirvana, which is the liberation from suffering through the renunciation of desire.
• Impermanence and Suffering: Buddhism emphasizes the impermanence of all existence and the suffering that arises from this impermanence. Everything, whether living or non-living, is in a constant state of change. Nothing is permanent, and existence itself is the root of suffering.
• Ignorance and Karma: Ignorance is seen as the cause of suffering and bondage. Karma, which is born out of ignorance, carries karmic impressions from one life to the next. This means that our current life conditions are the results of past actions. Every thought, word, or action from a previous existence influences the present one.

Principles of Buddhism

Doctrine of Non-Self (Anatta)

• Buddhism is fundamentally based on the Doctrine of Non-Self, which contrasts sharply with other major philosophies.
• Unlike these philosophies, Buddhism does not believe in a permanent entity like the Soul or Atman.
• It asserts that there is no enduring entity in humans, and that the concepts of self or soul are not distinct entities.

Nirvana

• Buddhism teaches the concept of Nirvana, which is a state of complete freedom from suffering.
• In Nirvana, individuals attain perfect knowledge, peace, and wisdom, freeing them from all bondage.

Four Noble Truths

• During his enlightenment, Lord Buddha imparted the Four Noble Truths to his followers.
• These truths are:

1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)
2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudaya)
3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)
4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Marga)

The Eightfold Path to Nirvana proposed by the Buddha

1. Right Belief: Having the correct understanding and belief in the principles of Buddhism.

2. Right Meditation: Engaging in proper meditation practices to cultivate a focused and calm mind.

3. Right Memory: Maintaining awareness and memory of the Buddha's teachings.

4. Right Effort: Making a diligent effort to improve oneself and follow the path.

5. Right Speech: Speaking truthfully and harmoniously, avoiding harmful speech.

6. Right Conduct: Acting in accordance with ethical guidelines and principles.

7. Right Thought: Cultivating positive and wholesome thoughts.

8. Right Action: Engaging in actions that are beneficial and ethical.

Classification of Buddhism Schools

Hinayana School (the lesser vehicle)

• Followers of the Hinayana school believed in the original teachings of the Buddha.
• They aimed for individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
• Idol worship was not a part of their beliefs.
• The Hinayana school favored the Pali language.
• This school is known as 'Southern Buddhist Religion' because it was prevalent in South India, such as Sri Lanka and Burma.
• There were two sub-sects of Hinayana: Vaibhasika and Sautrantika.

Mahayana School (i.e. the greater vehicle)

• Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha.
• They sought the salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattva.
• They believe in idol worship.
• They favored the Sanskrit language.
• It is known as 'Northern Buddhist Religion' because it prevailed in North India and religions like China, Korea, Japan, etc.

Educational Philosophy

Institutionalization of Education: With the advent of the Buddhist era, India witnessed the large-scale institutionalization of education, marking a significant shift in the educational landscape.

Prominence of International Centers: Renowned international centers of education such as Nalanda, Takshashila, Vikramshila, Ballabhi, Odantapuri, Nadia, Amravati, Nagahalla, and Sarnath gained prominence during this period. These centers were integral to the dissemination of knowledge and education.

Development of Educational Centers: Educational centers during the Buddha period were primarily developed in Viharas (monasteries) and Sanghas (assemblies), reflecting the Buddhist emphasis on communal living and learning.

Comprehensive Educational Aims: Buddhist education aimed at holistic development encompassing knowledge, social development, vocational skills, religious understanding, and character development.

Moral Values and Social Progress: The educational philosophy stressed the importance of following moral values inherent in the Buddhist religion and emphasized societal progress and development over individual advancement.

Eradication of Ritualism: Buddhist education aimed at eradicating Vedic Karmakanda or ritualistic practices, promoting a more rational and ethical approach to spirituality.

Language of Instruction: Education was to be provided in the language of the masses, Pali, making it accessible to a broader audience.

New Educational System: The educational system advocated by Buddha was to be new and innovative, breaking away from traditional norms.

Abandonment of Caste System: The caste system was to be abandoned, reflecting the egalitarian principles of Buddhism.

Ultimate Goal of Nirvana: The final goal of education was to achieve Nirvana, the ultimate state of liberation and enlightenment.

Teaching Methods: Various methods were adopted in Buddhist philosophy for teaching, including the Monitorial System, Preaching and Conference Method, Travelling, Verbal Study, Discussions, and Debates.

Two-Tier System of Education: A two-tier system of education was implemented, comprising Popular Elementary Education and Higher Education, with a focus on subjects like Logic, Science, Philosophy, Art, Medicine, Buddhism, Hinduism, Administration, and Metaphysics.

Development of Personality: Emphasis was placed on the total development of personality, integrating physical, mental, and spiritual aspects. The focus was on the interlinked development of various aspects of the individual.

Positivistic Approach: Buddhist philosophy is characterized by a positivistic approach, with a careful logical systematization of ideas.

Ethical Framework: The ethical dimension is central to Buddhist education, with the eightfold path to Nirvana being a universal guiding principle.

Cosmopolitan Outlook: Buddhist education was cosmopolitan, free from communal narrowness and favoritism based on caste or creed.

Prohibition of Corporal Punishment: Corporal punishments were strictly forbidden, aligning with contemporary educational practices.

Development of Good Conduct: The techniques of Buddhism aimed at developing good conduct, which is fundamental to a sound education system.

Moral Discipline: Moral discipline was based on character, with monks taking vows of chastity and poverty as a model.

Emphasis on Manual Skills: Training in manual skills such as spinning and weaving was emphasized to enable individuals to earn a livelihood.

Educational Implications of Buddhism

• Simple Life and High Thinking: Buddhism promotes the idea of living a simple life while nurturing high intellectual and spiritual aspirations.
• Values: There is a strong emphasis on instilling and upholding core values within the educational framework.
• Mass Education: Buddhism advocates for mass education, ensuring that education is accessible to all, regardless of social standing.
• Higher Education: The spread and development of higher education are crucial, focusing on advanced knowledge and skills.
• Art and Literature: Buddhism emphasizes the development of art and literature, recognizing their importance in cultural and intellectual growth.
• State Patronage: There is an emphasis on state support and patronage of education, ensuring adequate resources and support for educational institutions.
• Higher Standard of Education: Buddhism advocates for a higher standard of education, focusing on quality and excellence in educational practices.
• Teacher-Taught Relationship: The ideal relationship between teachers and students is emphasized, promoting mutual respect, understanding, and collaboration in the learning process.

Symbols of Buddhism

Buddhist symbols carry significant meanings that serve as reminders of the teachings of Buddha. The central place of worship is known as a Shrine or Buddha Hall. In front of this hall, there is an Altar where offerings and prayers are made.

Symbols and Beautiful Items on the Altar

Buddhist Symbols

• Images of the Buddha: Various Buddha and Bodhisattva images represent different qualities. For example, a statue of the Buddha with his hand resting on his lap symbolizes inner peace, while a statue with the Buddha's right hand touching the ground signifies determination.
• Traditional Offerings:These offerings show respect to the Buddha and include:
  • Flowers: Symbolizing the impermanence of life.
  • Light from lamps or candles: Representing the wisdom of the Buddha.
  • Incense: Symbolizing purity.
  • Water: Representing peacefulness and the Buddha's purity.
• Dharma Instruments: Used in ceremonies and meditation, each instrument has a specific purpose. For instance, the wooden fish is struck to maintain rhythm during practices.

Practical Activities in Buddhist Education

• Emphasis on Actions: Buddha's teachings focus on practical activities that encompass physical, intellectual, moral, and social actions.
• Essential for Salvation: Moral education, meditation, and intelligence are deemed necessary for achieving salvation.
• Scientific Approach: Buddha approached superstitions, orthodox views, and unnecessary rituals with a scientific mindset, preferring practical over theoretical discussions.
• Training of Senses: Buddhist education emphasizes sensory training, aiding in detachment, passion control, misery cessation, mental peace, knowledge acquisition, wisdom, and ultimately, Nirvana.

Impermanence and Illusion

• Everything in this world is temporary, akin to the transient nature of a wave. The continuity we perceive is an illusion of permanence.
• Suggested Studies: Buddha advocated for studies in social science, moral education, ethics, science, and co-curricular activities such as social service, welfare, non-violence, and adherence to Buddhist vows.

Core Teachings of Buddha

• Three Major Points: Discipline, meditation, and wisdom are the pillars of Buddha's teachings.
• Discipline: Observing precepts fosters discipline, which is crucial for achieving deep meditation.
• Wisdom: The ultimate goal, realized naturally through deep meditation.

Impact of Buddhist Education

• Students trained in Buddhist institutions are expected to be free from vices such as injustice, lying, theft, killing, addiction to alcohol, and moral turpitude.
• Development of Virtues: Education cultivates virtues by eliminating greed, lust, enmity, and ignorance.

Principles of Living

• Simple Living and High Thinking: Monks and students adhered to this principle, leading lives of purity and dutifulness.
• Astang Marg: Following the Eightfold Path is integral to their way of life.

Responsibilities of Teachers

• Teachers were tasked with imparting education, writing, propagating religion, and facilitating discussions and debates for clarification of serious subjects.
• Holistic Development: Ensuring physical, mental, spiritual, and moral development of students was a key responsibility.
• Care and Support: Teachers provided care during illnesses and personal crises, treating students with affection and responsibility.

Role of Teachers in Buddhist Education

• Importance: Teachers held a vital place in Buddhist education, responsible for the all-round development of students.
• Categories: Acharyas and Upadhayas were the two categories of teachers, responsible for students' food, accommodation, and livelihoods.
• Monitoring: Teachers ensured adherence to rules, meditation practices, and concentration in learning.

Responsibility and Care

• Teacher's Role: Teachers were responsible for the education, clothing, food, and residence of student monks.
• Health Care: Any treatment required by students during illness was the teacher's responsibility.
• Affection and Guidance: Teachers bestowed affection and educated students through lectures and interactive methods, regarded as spiritual or intellectual fathers.

Jainism: An Overview

• Origin: Jainism is one of the ancient religions of India, predating Buddhism and Christianity. It is a transethnic religion that teaches the conquest of worldly passions through mental and physical control.
• Influence: Jainism has significantly impacted Indian civilization and is known for its rich literature, epics, and stories. Jains are known for their wealth and extensive cultural heritage.
• Tirthankaras: Jainism believes in 24 Tirthankaras, who are spiritual guides helping souls cross the river of transmigration. The 24th Tirthankara, Vardhman Mahavira, is well-known in this tradition.
• Philosophical Outlook: Jainism is grounded in common sense, realism, and pluralism, promoting a balanced and realistic approach to life.

What we perceive as objects are indeed real, and there are many of them.

Jainism, often referred to as "Jaina Dharma," advocates a path of non-violence towards all living beings and emphasizes spiritual independence and equality among all forms of life. This makes Jainism one of the oldest religions in the world.

Core Principles of Jainism

Non-violence

Non-violence, or ahimsa, is the most distinctive and well-known aspect of Jaina religious practice. Jains have a more radical, scrupulous, and comprehensive understanding and implementation of ahimsa compared to other religions. Non-violence is considered the most essential religious duty for everyone.

A thorough and scrupulous application of non-violence in everyday activities, especially in relation to food, is a significant hallmark of Jaina identity. The strictest forms of Jaina diet are practiced by ascetics. For Jains, lacto-vegetarianism represents the minimal obligation, meaning food containing even small particles of dead animal bodies or eggs is absolutely unacceptable. Jains make considerable efforts in their daily lives not to injure plants any more than necessary.

Self-control

Jainism encourages spiritual development through the cultivation of personal wisdom and reliance on self-control through vows. Jains accept different levels of compliance for ascetics and lay followers.

Soul and Karma

According to Jains, souls are intrinsically pure and possess the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss, and infinite energy. However, in contemporary experience, these qualities are obstructed due to the soul's association with a substance called Karma over an eternity of beginningless time.

Doctrine of Jaina

Jaina metaphysics is centered around Anekantavada, which is the Doctrine of Manyness of Reality. According to this doctrine, all objects of knowledge are manifold or multiform (Anekanta) , possessing infinite qualities and relations that set them apart from other objects. An object’s identity is determined by both its positive and negative characteristics, making it necessary for only the omniscient to have complete knowledge of an object.

Anekantavada and Syadvada

• Every object has countless characteristics, but it is beyond the capacity of ordinary individuals to know all of them. Human knowledge is inherently relative and limited, which is also true for all our judgments. This epistemological and logical theory of the Jains is known as Syadvada.
• Anekantavada and Syadvada are two facets of the same teaching, which is relativistic pluralism and realism. The metaphysical aspect, which acknowledges that reality has countless characteristics, is called Anekaritavada. On the other hand, the epistemological and logical aspect, which asserts that we can only know some facets of reality, is known as Syadvada.

Jainism and Its Beliefs

• Jainism acknowledges the existence of Gods but places them at a lower level than the Jina (the conqueror or enlightened being) . Unlike Buddhism, Jainism does not condemn the Varna system (the social class system) . According to Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, a person’s birth in a high or low Varna is a consequence of the sins or virtues accumulated in previous lives.
• Jainism teaches that individuals from lower castes can attain liberation through a pure and meritorious life. The primary goal of Jainism is to achieve freedom from worldly bonds, which can be attained through right knowledge, right faith, and right action. These are regarded as the three jewels or triratna of Jainism.
• Jainism prohibits its followers from engaging in war and even agriculture, as both practices involve the killing of living beings. Liberation does not require any rituals; it can be achieved through the triratna.

Path of Liberation in Jainism

Right Faith is the sincere belief in the essential principles of Jainism, showing respect towards the truth. Right Knowledge involves a clear understanding of the real nature of the soul and non-soul, free from doubt and error, leading to absolute omniscience. Right Conduct is about practicing extreme carefulness in actions like walking and speaking to stop the influx of new Karmas and wear out existing ones. Together, these three paths are known as the Three Jewels or Triratna and are essential for self-realization and liberation.

Teaching of Jainism

In order to achieve liberation, Jainism emphasizes the importance of the five great vows (Pancha-Mahavrata).

The Panch-Mahavrata includes:

1. Ahimsa (Non-Injury to Life) : This principle is rooted in the belief of the potential equality of all souls. It goes beyond merely refraining from taking life to encompass not even thinking or speaking of taking life, nor permitting or encouraging others to do so.

2. Satyam (Abstinence from Falsehood) : This vow involves not only speaking what is true but also ensuring that it is good and pleasant.

3. Asteyam (Abstinence from Stealing) : This principle is about not taking what is not given, based on the sanctity of property.

4. Brahmacharyam (Abstinence from Self-Indulgence) : This vow entails abstaining from all forms of self-indulgence, whether external or internal, subtle or gross, mundane or extra-mundane, direct or indirect.

5. Aparigraha (Abstinence from Attachment) : This principle involves abstaining from attachment to the five senses, including pleasant sounds, touches, colors, tastes, and smells.

• Teaching should provide the necessary knowledge and penance to assist Jiva (soul).
• There is a belief in the transmigration of the soul, suggesting that education may partly prepare for the next world.
• Education should lead to self-enlightenment and restore the full potential of Jiva.
• The focus should be on the divinity of Jiva and the removal of material bonds from the soul.
• Education should guide students towards Karma that leads to Moksha (liberation).
• The Law of Karma (cause and effect) governs the universe, where moral law punishes sins and rewards good deeds. The belief that character creates its own heaven and hell is significant in almost all schools of philosophy.
• The highest state of knowledge is intuition, leading to the realization of the oneness of the universe.
• Integrated education reflects the significant contribution of Jain philosophy to Indian philosophy. Concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Moksha, and Sansara have been assimilated into the philosophies of other Indian religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.
• The aim of education in India has historically been man-making, fostering individuals capable of self-realization.
• The concept of compassion in Jainism and Buddhism extends to all living beings, including animals.
• There is a strong emphasis on non-violence, multiple facets of truth, morality, and ethics in Jain philosophy.
• Jainism contributes to the strain of pacifism by stressing absolute respect for living beings and advocating non-violence as the best way to resist evil.

Methods of Teaching in Jaina Education

1. Teaching through Senses and Meditation: Education should engage the senses and incorporate meditation as a means of learning.

2. Social and Tolerant Approach: Teaching should be social in nature and promote tolerance among students.

3. Action-Based and Ideally Oriented: Education should focus on action and be oriented towards ideal outcomes.

4. Activity-Centered Curriculum: The Jaina system emphasizes that individuals face the consequences of their deeds, which are reflected in their physical attributes and circumstances. The curriculum is designed to lead students towards various actions and activities, reinforcing the idea that their experiences are the result of their own actions, not divine intervention.

5. Development of Social and Moral Values: Education should create an environment that fosters social and moral values, highlighting the importance of individual actions in practicing religion and fulfilling duties.

6. Attainment of Salvation: The ultimate goal of education is to achieve salvation. By detaching from worldly pleasures, harmful desires can be reduced, allowing individuals to focus on spiritual goals and helping others.

7. Liberation of the Soul: True education aims to liberate the soul from bondage, which can be accomplished through various subjects, co-curricular activities, and cultural events.

8. Vocational Education: The curriculum also emphasizes vocational education to balance economic conditions and develop a skilled workforce.

9. Inclusion of Various Subjects: The Jaina curriculum comprises social sciences, natural sciences, moral education, vocational training, and yoga exercises.

10. Respect and Reverence for Teachers: Students should treat their teachers with utmost respect, considering them as divine figures.

11. Emulation of Ideal Characters: Students are encouraged to emulate the ideal qualities and characters of their Gurus.

12. Carefulness in Life: Practicing mindfulness and carefulness in all aspects of life is essential.

13. Following Five Vows: Adhering to the five vows is crucial for achieving good conduct.

14. Practicing Ten Different Dharmas: Engaging in practices such as non-attachment, forgiveness, self-restraint, and austerity is important for spiritual growth.

15. Being a Role Model: Individuals should strive to be role models, embodying all the vows and principles.

16. Living Exemplarily: Following the example of a living guru who practices all the vows is encouraged.

17. Rigorous Training for Soul Liberation: Engaging in rigorous training to liberate the soul from bondage is a fundamental aspect of Jaina education.

Dayanand Darshan

Swami Dayanand, a contemporary Indian philosopher, is often regarded as a prominent rationalist. While he strongly supported the Vedas and other holy texts, his approach was always that of a rational thinker. He never accepted anything without carefully considering its pros and cons.

His most important work,  Satyartha Prakash  , showcases his rationalism. Dayanand explained the purpose of this book, emphasizing that it aims to help people distinguish between truth and falsehood, without intending to hurt anyone's feelings. He believed that practicing truth is essential for the improvement of humanity.

These words reflect both his rationalist and humanist beliefs. Dayanand's goal was the progress of humanity towards happiness, and this aim guided his philosophical ideas.

According to Swami Dayanand, education should provide genuine and real knowledge about the master, self-development, and the welfare of all living beings. It should foster a spirit of service and a willingness to help others.

In Dayanand's view, education is a crucial moral process for the development of mankind. He believed that a person without education is merely a name and that it is the duty of every individual to acquire education, become virtuous, free from malice, and work for the well-being of others while promoting righteousness.

Contribution of Dayanand

Education for Perfection

Dayanand's Philosophy of Education emphasizes the goal of education for perfection. He pursued this aim with great vigor, sometimes proposing impractical schemes and demanding standards and virtues that were exceedingly high, even for the most capable individuals. His vision involved a very high standard of character and conduct, aiming for holistic perfection in education.

Multi-Sided Curriculum

Dayanand's Vision for Education

1. Aim for Perfection: Dayanand's curriculum, as outlined in the  Satyartha Prakash  , reflects his goal of achieving the complete and balanced development of individuals through education. He was not just focused on imparting knowledge but on shaping well-rounded individuals.

2. Comprehensive Approach: The curriculum he proposed is detailed and wide-ranging, which might seem excessive in today's world where specialization is common. However, Dayanand believed that specialized knowledge alone leads to a one-sided personality and does not contribute to overall perfection.

3. Rigorous and Demanding: It is true that Dayanand's educational scheme is very rigorous and may be beyond the capacity of most people today, both males and females. His approach was ahead of its time, aiming for a level of thoroughness and depth in education that is challenging to achieve.

4. Critique of Specialization: Dayanand's emphasis on a broad curriculum critiques the modern trend of specialization. He believed that only focusing on a narrow field of study would lead to a lopsided development of individuals, lacking in other essential areas.

5. Holistic Development: The core of Dayanand's educational philosophy is holistic development. He wanted education to cover various aspects of a person's life, ensuring that no area is neglected, which is crucial for the overall growth and perfection of an individual.

Humanism and Rationalism

Dayanand's humanistic approach is evident in his strong opposition to superstitions, unscientific beliefs, immoralities, and deceptions. He was a proponent of science and the scientific outlook, often more positive than contemporary positivists.

He was a leading rationalist who advocated for the use of reason in all aspects of human life. While he held the Vedas in high regard and considered them divine, he also encouraged people to distinguish between truth and falsehood, using rational criteria and sound logic to guide their beliefs. His educational philosophy, although rooted in Vedic thought, emphasized the importance of reason and critical thinking.

Dayanand's contributions to education were significant, especially in protecting Hindu philosophy from the influences of other religions. He aimed to preserve ancient Hindu values while maintaining traditional modes of thinking. His ideas on education remain relevant to contemporary educational philosophy.

According to Indian tradition, the aim of education is to impart Vidya, or real knowledge, which removes ignorance and fosters spiritual values such as religiosity and self-control. Dayanand believed that education should provide right knowledge, cultivate culture, increase religiosity and self-control, and liberate individuals from ignorance for the welfare of both this world and the next.

In his book Vyavahar Bhanu, Dayanand argued that education leads to happiness and knowledge, with knowledge being the key to happiness. Education aims to remove four types of ignorance and provide right knowledge. Avidya, or ignorance, is characterized by the absence of true knowledge, culture, religiosity, and self-control.

Dayanand emphasized the importance of teachers in education, stating that they should be learned, of good character, and dedicated to their task. He advocated for a close relationship between teachers and pupils, akin to that of a father and son. Discipline was crucial in Dayanand's educational philosophy, with strict actions against rule-breaking by teachers and students.

Dayanand advocated for similar educational opportunities for both males and females, with a general curriculum for all Varnas and specific studies for each Varna. He recommended books for deep study that meet rigorous criteria.

Dayanand not only outlined a detailed curriculum but also identified impediments to achieving educational aims. He advised teachers and students to avoid hindrances such as associating with wicked people, bad habits, fornication, child-marriage, lack of Brahmacharya, and over-eating.

Teaching Methods Suggested by Swami Dayanand

• Curriculum for Truth: The curriculum should guide individuals toward the path of truth.
• Avoiding Impediments: Teachers and students must steer clear of obstacles such as the company of wicked people and dishonesty to achieve educational aims.
• Teacher Qualities: Teachers should possess a good memory and sound logic. Swami Dayanand supported the Vedic philosophy of education.
• Constructive Education: Swami Dayanand emphasized the constructive and comprehensive nature of the educational scheme, aiming for the moral and spiritual welfare and upliftment of humanity, regardless of caste, creed, nationality, or time.

Islamic Philosophy

Islamic Philosophy is a field within Islamic studies that seeks to reconcile reason (philosophy) with the religious teachings of Islam (faith). It involves philosophical activity within the Islamic context, drawing primarily from the religion of Islam itself, especially interpretations of the Quran.

Early Islamic thought can be divided into two main currents:

• Kalam: This deals mainly with theological questions and is based on interpretations of Aristotelian and Neoplatonic philosophy.
• Philosophical Interpretation: This involves the interpretation of philosophical ideas within the framework of Islamic teachings.

Concept of Islamic Education

Islamic philosophy deals with various fundamental issues, including the concepts of unity and multiplicity, as well as the relationship between God and the world. A key principle in Islamic philosophy is the Principle of Divinity, which involves defining and explaining God's attributes. While God's attributes can be listed, His essence is considered beyond human comprehension.

Islamic philosophy seeks to harmonize revelation with reason, knowledge with faith, and religion with philosophy. In this framework, revelation, intellect, faith, knowledge, and religion are seen as complementary and mutually reinforcing.

Islam has a significant following in India, second only to Hinduism. Ideologically, Islam is viewed as a continuation of the ancient Mesopotamian tradition and a reinterpretation of Judaism and Christianity, though it does not endorse inter-religious borrowing. The term "Islam" signifies complete submission to Allah, or God.

Islam is a universal religion applicable to both spiritual and worldly aspects of life. It does not recognize distinctions based on caste, creed, wealth, language, race, or region. At its core, Islam represents peace through submission to God. It advocates for a profound religious life while also providing guidelines for a good and fulfilling existence.

The purpose of Islamic education is to achieve worldly success and social prominence, with the primary goal being to understand the relationship between humanity and God as conveyed in the Holy Quran.

Aims and Objectives

• To provide experiences rooted in the fundamentals of Islam.
• To cultivate a deep awareness of the divine presence in the universe.
• To offer the teachings of the Holy Quran as the foundational step in education.
• To provide knowledge and skills with the understanding that these experiences may evolve with societal changes.
• To promote international brotherhood, regardless of differences in generations, occupations, and social classes.
• Recitation and Learning: Involves the recitation and collective repetition of the Kalama to instill foundational Islamic beliefs.
• Teaching Methods: Includes writing, reading, and oral methods, along with monitoring techniques used in Maktabs and Madrasas to ensure effective learning.
• Akbar's Emphasis on Teaching: Akbar highlighted the importance of effective teaching through written communication, such as letters, to enhance the quality of education.
• Women's Education: During Akbar's time, women's education faced significant challenges due to the Purdah system. Young girls were secluded, making it difficult for them to access education.
• Examination System: There were no annual exams in the traditional examination system. Evaluation was a continuous process, and promotion was based on the teacher's assessment.

Basic Principles

Free Education: Education in Maktabs and Madrasas was free and mandatory for all Muslim children up to the elementary level.

Patronage of Education: Most Muslim rulers established Maktabs and Madrasas, demonstrating their support and affection for education.

Promotion of Cultural Unity: There were no restrictions based on caste or religion for admission into Maktabs and Madrasas.

Development of Literature and History: Significant attention was given to the growth of history and the art of writing it. This period marked the beginning of the tradition of writing history, and various forms of literature also saw considerable development.

Monitorial System: The monitorial system of education was commonly used during this time.

Practical and Useful Education: Education was geared towards preparing individuals for practical life, with a focus on objectivity.

Encouragement of Persian Language and Science: Persian was the medium of instruction, leading to an emphasis on teaching Arabic and Persian languages, as well as science subjects.

Curriculum: Elementary Stage: Reading, writing, arithmetic, and religious education. Higher Stages: Astronomy, physics, medicine, algebra, geometry, law, history, and economics. Inclusivity: Hindus were taught their religious texts and were allowed to attend Madrasas. Many Hindus also learned Persian and achieved proficiency in it.

Growing Importance of Science and Arts/Crafts: There was an increasing emphasis on science and arts/crafts during this period. Theological curricula, such as Dare-E-Nizami, were followed in India.